
Class _xli^ 
Book 



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GopyiightN"_ 



COBfRIGIIT DEPOSIT. 



LAND TEACHING 



A Handbook of Soils, Plants, Gardens and 
Grounds, for Teachers and Cultivators 



BY 
H. E. STOCKBRIDGE, Ph. D. 



Atlanta, Georgia 

SOUTHERN RURALIST COMPANY 

1910 



^^ 



op 






Copyright 

By 

Southern Ruralist Co., 

1910. 



.CI.A>;613 94 



PREFACE 



This little book has been prepared in the hope that it might aid in 
Dringing the pupils of country schools close to the land. 

Teachers should not be held wholly to blame if the instruction they 
give unfits for the life most of their pupils must live. Most teachers 
know that the majority of the school puplis of to-day must become 
the men and women of the farms to-morrow. They are not deliberate- 
ly so educating them as to unfit them for success, or make them dissat- 
isfied with farm life. 

Teachers teach as best they may, with the knowledge they possess, 
the things the courses call for. The mere official introduction of the 
study of agriculture is but slight improvement. It would not be ex- 
pected that a teacher ignorant of arithmetic should successfully teach 
arithmetic simply because the study was prescribed and textbooks fur- 
nished. 

Yet this illustrates the present status of teaching agriculture in 
many schools. 

Many teachers would gladly fit themselves for better work in this 
new field. EJven agricultural colleges have hardly begun to meet the 
new demand, and few normal schools have yet recognized its existence. 
It is moreover, expecting too much to suppose that teachers shall im- 
mediately educate themselves for this new demand. 

I am satisfied, however, that very many teachers would gladly wel- 
come any source of information, — any practical guide or assistance, — 
which would enable them to do effective work in this distinctly rural 
field. 

ihis is the demand I have tried to meet, — the help I now offer. 

This book is not a textbook. It is not even a systematic presentation 
of any single subject. It is merely a source of information, the pos- 
session of which it is believed will enable teachers to teach success- 
fully. Some of the principles of plant life, gardening, the fertilizing 
of crops, combatting plant pests, pruning, grafting, the ornamentation 
and care of school and home grounds, are the subjects presented. 

Much of the material offered is rearranged from articles already pub- 
lished in the Southern Ruralist. Parts I, III and V were originally 
written by Professor T. H. McHatton, of the Georgia State College of 



Agriculture, and Part IV by Professor H. P. Stuckey, of the Georgia 
iilxperiment Station. 

The book has been prepared by teachers especially for the use of 
teachers. It is hoped, however, that it may prove of practical value to 
those who cultivate the soil. It is offered to the public in the sincere 
hope that it may help toward making the public school a more active 
agent in the advancement of rural life. 

H. E. Stockbridge. 

Atlanta, Ga., January, 1910. 



CONTENTS 



Part I. 

Page. 

THE HOME GROiUlNDS.— Home.— As Index to Community.— 
The General Idea. — Green Grass and Trees. — Nature's Col- 
or. — Kinds of Grass for Lawns. — ^Deciduous Trees. — Ever- 
green Trees. — ^Hedges. — Shrubs and Flowering Trees. — 
Flowens. — ^Old Fashioned Gardens. — ^Trees and Plants have 
Character. — (Follow Nature. 1 

Part II. 

FIRST PRINClIPLElS. — ^Ohject of Farming and Gardening. — 
Soil and Air.— THE SOIL.— Origin.— A True Soil.— <]ompo- 
sition of Soils. — iProperties of Soils. — Weight. — (Structure 
and Color. — Soil and Water. — •Capillary Action.— Conser- 
vation of Soil Water. — 'Soil and Heat. — Sources of Heat. 
— ^Moisture and Heat.— Temperatures of Soil and Air. — Dew 
Formation. — ^Kinds of Soil. — iSandy Soil. — Clay Soil. — 
Loam. — Peat or Muck. — 'Gravel. — Arable Soil. — ^Subsoil. — 
Hard-Pan.— THE PLANT.— ^Reproduction.-Sex of Plants. 
Kinds of Flowers. — Action of Pollen.— Propagation. — ^Ger- 
mination. — Heat Required. — ^Moisture. — The Germ. — ^Act- 
ion of Air. — Plant Growth. — Feeding. — How Plants Grow. 
Stem and Root. — (Leaves. — Duds. — Root Hairs. — How 
Plants Feed. — ^Two Kindis of Food. — Soil and Atmospheric. 
— Nitrogen from Air. — Atmospheric Food. — Organic Ingred- 
ients of Plants. — Using Soil Food. — ^^Solution Necessary. 
Means of Solution. — Selection of Food. — Assimilation of 
Food.— Absorptive Power of Soils.— PLANT FOOD.— Needs 
of the Plant. — Three Essentials. — Form of Supply. — Ferti- 
lizers and Foods. — Source of Supply. — Phosphoric Acid. 
Nitrogen. — ^Potash. — Availability. — Proportions and Quan- 
tities. — Fertilizer Calculations. — A Given Analysis. — To 
Find the Analysis of a Mixture. — Calculating Value. 
Converting Nitrogen and Ammonia. — Rules and Factors. 8 



LAIfD TEACHING. 



Part III. 



Page, 



SIMPLE BOTANY.— BOTANICAL DIVISIONS, PARTS OF A 
PLANT.— ^Classification of Plants.— THE VEIG-ETABUJE 
KINGDOM.— Kinds of Roots.— Jloot Hairs.— How Roots 
Feed.— THE STEM O'R TRUN-K.- Kinds of Stems.— Office 
of the Stem. — Structure of the Stem. — Growth of the Stem. 
THE BUD.— Kinds of Buds.— Growth of Buds.— (LEAVES. 
— ^Kinds of Leaves. — Structure of Leaves. — Functions of 
Leaves. — lOhemical Action of Leaves. — PuTification of Air. 
Transpiration.— THE PLOWEIR.- Parts of the Flower.— 
Reproductive Organs of Flowers. — Inflorescence. — REPRO- 
DUCTION. — iSexual Reproduction. — Vegetative Reproduc- 
tion.— Other Methods.— FRUITS IN G-ENERAL.— Structure 
of Fruits. — Kinds of Fruits. — Uses of Fruits. — THE SEED. 
Structure of Seed. — Kinds of Seed. — Germination. — Distri- 
bution and Number of Seed.— .HORTICULTURAL PROPA- 
GATION.— Grafting.— Principles.-Kinds.-Methods. Bnd- 
ding.—Outtings .—-Layering.— Bulbs .-^ORCHARD FRUITS. 
Clissifioation. — A Pome. — ^A Drupe. — True Berries. — Other 
Fruits. 29 

Part IV. 

SCHOOL GARDEINS.—INTRiO!DUCT)IOlN.— Value of School Gar- 
dens. — Phase of Nature Study. — Adaption to Environment. 
MAKING THE GARDEN.— -Selection of Site.— Preparing and 
Fertilizing. — 'Kinds of Plants to Grow. — Seeds.— .Sample Plat 
of Garden. — Group and Individual Gardens . —nGrades of Chil- 
dren.— Tools.— FALL WORK.— Hot Beds and Cold Frames. 
WINTER WORK.— Laboratory Exercises.— Study of Seed. 
—SPRING WORK.— Course of Study for Different Grades. 62 

Part V. 

PLANNING AND CARE OF SCHOOL OROUNOS.— INFLU- 
ENCE OF SCHOOL SURROUNDINGS.- Susceptibility of 
Children.— The School House.— The Past and Present. — 
General Plan of Grounds. ^<:ontinmty of Plan.— TREES. 
Reasons for Planting Trees. — Kinds of Trees.-^are of 



LAND TEACHING. vii 

Page. 
62 

Trees. — SHUUBS. — Adaption of Shrubs. — Kinds of Shrubs. 
VINES. Uises of Vines.— Adaption of Vines.— (FTjOWEIRS. 
Classes of Flowers. — Place of Flowers. — ^Kinds of Flowers. 
Care of Flowers.— LAWNS AND PLiAYOROUNDS.— Uses 
and Adaptions of Grass. — ^Grounds for Use. — 'Making of 
Lawns. — Kinds of Grases. — Play Space. — ^CARE OF 
GROUNDS.— Influence of Climate.— Definite Plan.— Tidi- 
. . ness of Grounds. — Influence on Character. 90 

Part VI. 

H01RTICULTUIRAL PRACTICE.— ICUTTIN'GS.— Principles In- 
volved. — ^Kinds of Cuttings. — 'As Related to Different Kinds 
of Plants. — PRUNING. — Relations of Pruning. — Why 
Prune. — ^When Prune. — ^How Prune. — Trees and Vines. — 
GRAFTING AND BUDDIENG.— Keasonis for Grafting. — Kinds 
of Grafting. — Methods of Grafting. — iBudding. — Objects of 
Budding. — (Relations between iBuds and Cuttings. Ill 

Part VII. 

CROP PEST DIRECTOIRY.— ^KINDS OF PESTS.— Insects.— 
Fungus Diseases. — Different Kinds of Insects. — Sucking and 
Biting.— Methods of Protection.— FUNGUS DISEASES. 
Which Use. — Isecticides. — Fungicides. — Practical Formu- 
las. 121 

Appendix. 

USEFUL TABLES. — ^Vitality and Germination of Seed. — Quan- 
tity of Seed Required. — Distances for Planting. — Fertiliz- 
ing Constituents in Garden Crops. — Fertilizer Composition. 
— ^Fertilizer Ingredients. — Fertilizer Constitu'ents of Crops. 128 



Part I. 
THE HOME GROUNDS. 



Home! What a charm hangs around that name. It is never heard but 
that the mind flashes baclf for an instant to the by-gone days; may be to 
a palace, may be to a hut. How much more pleasant it is for that pic- 
ture to be one of cleanliness, of flowers and green grass with the shad- 
ows of majestic trees cast on the carpet of the lawn, than to see tin cans, 
heaps of refuse, weeds and barren dirt, all in the blistering sun. It does 
not take much work to make the grounds about the house attractive. 
A few judiciously planted trees and shrubs will lend an air of refine- 
ment and repose to the most unsightly house. When we remember 
that within the home lies the foundation of the nation, is it not 
worth the while of patriotic mother and father to do everything 
within their power to brighten the ideals of the American people? 
Nothing so helps to mold youth into men or women of fine char- 
acter as close contact with the beauties of Nature. 

The homes of a country furnish the best index to the prosperity 
and moral tone of the community. There was once an old gentle- 
man who traveled a good deal long before the time of railroads, and 
it was his custom, whenever he wished to stop for the night, always 
to pick out a house that had flowers and trees about it, for, as he 
said, he had no fear then of the kind of bed or food that he would 
get as he knew that it would be the best obtainable. If one 
stopped to think that most people, in passing a home, get a mental 
impression of the owner, would there not be many more beautiful 
homes than there are; for does not everyone wish his neighbor to 
think well of him? 

Space will only allow us to throw out a few suggestions and leave 
each person to weave his or her individuallity into the surorundings 
of the home. The ideas given are simple: The plants practically all 
native, for after all, the local flora is generally the best adapted to 
use by the majority of people. 

The General Idea — Green grass and trees always look well; if 



2 LAND TEACHING. 

there 1b not a flower or a shrub in sight the landscape Is a joy to 
the eye, provided it shows soft lawns and waving trees. Green is 
most pleasing and restful to the sight. Had it not been so Nature 
would have used another color. The best lawn grass, from middle 
Georgia south is probably Bermuda; Kentucky Blue grass, also called 
June grass, is excellent where it can be used. White clover is often 
seen in lawns. It is objectionable, however, as it differs in color 
from the grasses and therefore gives a patchy appearance. It is 
good, nevertheless, to supplement grasses, cover bare spaces and 
make a quick lawn. 

Deciduous Trees — It is best to have the deciduous trees in the 
planting predominate over the evergreens. There is nothing that 
adds so much to a home as a large tree near the house. It makes 
the building fit the landscape, and where the limbs extend over the 
roof It lends an air of protection and comfort to the picture. The 
easiest way to get this tree is to build under it, for it takes time 
to produce an old, weather-beaten, age-worn monarch. Some of the 
trees well adapted for home use are the hackberry or sugarberry 
(Celtis occidentalis L.), the various species of oak, the American 
elm (Ulmus Americana L.) and the maples. The poplars may also 
be used where a quick growing tree is desired. Some of them, how- 
ever, such as the Lombardy, are very stiff and formal. 

Evergreen Trees — About the best evergreen we have, though a 
very slow-growing tree, is the magnolia grandiflora. The live oak 
(Quercus Virginiana Mill) is also good where it can be used. Ever- 
greens make a place somber; therefore should be used with care. 
The red cedar (Juniperus Virginia L) also makes a good tree. 
There are numerous others which need no mention. One or two 
evergreens judiciously placed help out the looks of things greatly 
during winter. 

Hedges — These should rarely be used and never close to the 
house unless in a formal garden, and then they should be low. The 
greatest use of a hedge is to form a wind-break, which we do not 
need in the South, and, secondly, to shield unsightly objects, such 
as the barnyard, servants' house, etc. The common euonymus (Euony- 
mus Japonicus L.) is quite a good hedge plant. Both the tree and 
the dwarf box may be used, the latter especially in formal gardens. 
Deodara (Cedra Deodara, Loud.) makes a good plant for a tall hedge 
and wind-break. Personally I am not a great advocate of hedges; 
in fact, think that a place can be made more beautiful without them. 



LAND TEACHINO. 3 

Shrubs and Flowering Trees — A single specimen of euonymus, box 
tree or holly makes a good shrub. Azalia japonica may also be used 
when far enough south. The wild sweetshrub (Calycanthus Flodirus, 
L.) and the cultivated banana shrub, sometimes called sweetshrub, 
also add to a place. There are numberless barberries and spiraeas 
that can be used to advantage. Among the flowering trees may be 
mentioned the dogwood (Cornus Florida, I.), the lilacs, both white 
and purple. The latter, however, are generally considered shrubs. 
In some sections the flowering crabapple may be used to advantage 
and makes a beautiful tree for the lawn. 

Flowers — First and foremost, do not cut the lawn up into geomet- 
rical beds. Flowers should be around the foundation of the house, 
or at least close to it; it is preferable to have a garden set aside 
In particular for them. A rose garden, at one side of the house and 
back of the lawn, is an unending source of pleasure. Flowers should 
be where they can be fertilized and worked. Like any other crop 
they need cultivation. It is needless for any special plants to be 
mentioned, as every one has his favorites. Besides, all flowers are 
pretty If not out of place. An old-fashioned garden is always attract- 
ive around a country home. Old maids and such other flowers of 
our grandmother's day always bring up thoughts of the past and 
create an atmosphere of reverie, in which one can spend an hour; 
or so with the greatest of profit and pleasure. 

Conclusion — In conclusion, it may be said that there is nothing 
more beautiful than a natural tree or shrub, one that does not show 
tne work of man. Every tree and bush has its own individuality 
and grows in the fashion appointed by Nature. It is folly to try 
to make all trees round-headed by bobbing off their limbs and 
pruning them back to stumps. Let them grow as they list and 
then rejoice in the beautiful specimens that Nature will give you. 
A magnolia that has its limbs low to the ground far exceeds In 
beauty one that is pruned up ten or twelve feet. Remember that 
each plant Is a problem unto itself, and if you seek long enough a 
kind Nature will let you find the answer as to the why and where- 
fore of Its growth. 



Part II. 
FIRST PRINCIPLES. 



The object of farming and gardening is to produce plants. Plants 
grow, they are living things; they grow by consuming food. Thl& 
food comes from two sources, soil and air. 

Agriculture, in its broadest sense, is the business of converting 
Kfeless mineral matter of soil and air into living vegetable matter 
In the form of plants. It is founded, therefore, on the intelligent 
use of these materials. The properties of these two things should 
be understood by him who hopes to successfully influence their use. 

I^THE SOIL. 

Origin — The soil consists chiefly of fine particles of rocks. The 
original rocks were broken up and pulverized by action of several 
natural forces. The combined action of these forces is called weath- 
ering. Changes in temperature, earthquakes, running water, contrac- 
tion of the earth's surface, glaciers, frost, the chemical action of 
water, air, and the action of animal and plant life, are the chief 
causes resulting in the disintegrating of rocks. 

Mere pulverized rock, however Is not soil. Before this mineral 
matter can become true soil capable of sustaining high plant life it 
must contain a certain amount of organic matter. This latter ma- 
terial must come from the decay of organized beings either animal 
or vegetable. 

The simplest forms of plant life, like mosses and lichens, adhere to 
bare rock surfaces. By their death and decay a small quantity of 
vegetable matter becomes added to the weathering surface of the 
rock. Each generation of life adds to this accumulation. The sur- 
face of the rock continues to disintegrate and in time becomes cov- 
ered with a thin layer of soil. 

A true soil, — a mixture of mineral and organic materials, — ^is thus 
formed. The process continues with the lapse of time. As the 



LAND TEACHING. 

layer of soil increases the character of plants living on it changes 
till the highest forms of plant life appear, and the original rock is 
entirely buried beneath a depth of true soil capable of sustaining 
cultivated crops. 

Composition of Soils — The actual amount of organic matter whici. 
must become incorporated with disintegrated rocks before true soil 
results is comparatively small. Certain cultivated plants, like rye 
and buclrwheat, thrive on soils containing only 1 to 2 per cent, of 
organic matter. 

±*eat, or muck, has the highest proportion of organic matter, about 
70 per cent. Fertile bottom lands contain from 10 to 12 per cent., 
while average soils contain about 6 per cent, of such material. 

The entire organic part of soils is called humus. This contains 
several different acids one of the ingredients of which is nitrogen, 
which is an essential food of all plants. Humus, therefore, not only 
exerts great physical influence on soils, adapting them to the growth 
of plants, but is a source of actual plant food. 

Properties of Soils — There are necessarily many properties, both 
physical and chemical, peculiar to soils. A few are of the utmost 
importonce in relation to the growth of crops. 

Weight — This property varies greatly with different kinds of soils. 
The heaviest soils are those containing the most mineral (rock) 
material. The lightest ones are those containing the moat organic, 
(vegetable) matter. 

The weight of soils, therefore, is practically proportional to the 
mineral matter present. 

The weight of 1 cubic foot of different kinds of soil is as follows: 

Peat, 30 to 50 lbs.; Heavy clay, 75 lbs.; Loam, 78 lbs.; Average 
arable soil, 80 to 90 lbs.; Sandy clay, 96 lbs.; Sand, 110 lbs. 

Structure and Color — The color influences soil chiefly as related to 
heat. Dark soils absorb heat, and, other things being equal, are warm 
sooner and remain warm longer than the same soils when light 
colored. 

The structure of the soil is chiefly a matter of fineness of its 
particles. Other things being equal, the finer a soil the more fertile 
and more productive. It holds water better and dissolves plant food 
faster and more completely. 

Soil and Water — ^Water is life to every living thing. Cultivated 
plants are practically capable of obtaining water only by means of 
their roots through the soil. The relations of different soils to water, 



6 LAND TEACHING. 

therefore, are of the most vital importance. The water capacity of 
soils varies greatly and determines to a great degree their crop pro- 
ducing power. It is controlled by the amount of air-space in a soil, 
or amount of room which water may occupy by driving out the air. 

Common soils hold the following amounts of water: Sand 45.4 per 
cent.; clay, 50; loam, bO.l; peat, 63.7; average arable soil, 69. 

The property of soils for allowing water to pass or percolate through 
them Is called permeability. In common use this fact is called 
drainage. 

This action is closely allied to capillary action which is the up- 
ward movement of soil water. In reality this is merely one manifesta- 
tion of surface attraction. It is the movement of water upward from 
one soil particle to another. It is the same force manifested by the 
passage of oil through the lamp wick. 

Permanent water exists at some depth in all soils. Wells always 
reach water if made deep enough. It is only a question of how deep? 
This fact is perhaps the most important in the whole realm of plant 
growth. It is this water moving upward to the surface by capillary 
action which supplies the demand of plants for life-giving water. 

The nearer the soil particles are together the greater and more 
rapid is the movement of water between the particles. Therefore, 
capillary action is greater in conpact soils and less in porous soils. 

This fact gives the cultivator almost absolute control over the 
quantity of water available to crops. Cultivation, by making the 
surface soil more porous, interferes with capillary action. It prevents 
evaporation and waste from the surface soil into the air in time of 
drought. 

The reverse of this practice, namely, allowing the soil to remain 
undisturbed when too wet, increases the capillary movement of water 
and hastens drying. 

Soil and Heat — A certain amount of heat is necessary to all forms 
of life. Each plant grows only within certain limits of temperature 
of soil and water. 

The heat of the soil comes from three different sources: Th€ Sun's 
Kays, heat of Chemical Action or decomposition, and, least Important, 
Earth Heat radiatmg from the moulten Interior. 

Except under very exceptional conditions the last source of heat 
Is of little practical importance. The second source mentioned is of 
ralue In hot beds, but the heat derived from the sun is the only source 
of general interest. 



LAND TEACHING. 7 

Moistur* and Heat— Water is converted Into vapor by heat. Tlia 

direct action of heat on soil water is to cause it to evaporate 
into the air. The greater the amount of water evaporated the greater 
the amount of heat used. This fact Is largely res-^onsible for the 
coldness of wet soils, since their heat is constantly being used for the 
•vaporation of excess of water. 

The Boil iis not a good conductor of heat, and air temperatures have 
comparatively slight influence on the soil. 

Difference In heat of soil between day and night Is but, slight and 
Lb noticeable only to a depth of about 3 feet. Even differences 
between summer and winter in temperate climates penetrate only to 
a depth of about 70 feet. 

The difference between the temperature of soil and air Is of Incal- 
culable practical importance. This difference Is due to the difference 
In the absorption of heat between soil and air. 

The resulting difference in temperature Is the direct cause~of the 
formation of dew. Dew Is simply vapor of water condensed by con- 
tact with a colder body and deposited as drops of water. 

Contrary to common supposition the soil Is the warmer substance 
aad the air the colder. A thermometer placed Just below the sur- 
face of the soil and then in the air just over the soil when the dew 
ts being formed will show that the air Is several degrees colder than 
the soil. 

This fact Is easily ex:>lained. During the day the soil absorbs heat 
from the sun. After sunset the air cools very quickly while the solid 
soil Padiates heat slowly and therefore remains warm longer. Warm 
vapor of water evaporates from the warm soil and comes in contact 
with the overlying layer of cooler air. The immediate result Is the 
condensation of this moisture and the formation of drops of dew. 

The fact Is that dew comes from the soil rather than from the air 
as formerly believed. The reason why crops do not suffer for Eaois- 
ture when dews are abundant is because soils furnishing water 
for such dew formation still contain water sufficient for the need of 
plants. 

Kinds of Soil — The different kinds of soil used in common descrip- 
tions should be fixed in mind. 

Sandy soil contains over 80 per cent, of actual sand. Clay soil 
contains not less than 60 per cent, of actual clay. Loam ranges 
between sand and clay. Each of these latter ingredients may predom- 
inate and be used In describing the particular soil in mind. Thus 



8 LAND TEACHING. 

sandy loam and clay loam, are common terms. Peat or muck has 
the most humus of all soils. It contains the largest proportion of 
decomposed vegetation formed under water. Such soils are always 
wet till freed from this excess of water by drainage. 

Gravel soil contains considerable quantities of un weathered bits of 
water-washed rock, together with varying proportions of fine earth 
up to 30 per cent. The larger this proportion the greater the agricul- 
tural value of this kind of soil. 

Arable soil Is the surface layer which Is cultivated. Subsoil is the 
underlying layer "penetrated by plant roots. Hardpan is the compact 
layer found beneath the subsoil. By pressure and chemical action 
It is again slowly assuming rock form. 

■Constant plowing at a certain depth Is one of the most frequent 
causes of hardpan, the breaking of which by deeper or subsoil plowing 
Is often necessai'y. 

II— THE PLANT. 
REPRODUCTION. 

The chief object for cultivating the boII is for the production of 
plants. The particular object of each plant is the perpetuation of its 
kind. The reproduction of plants, therefore, is the nature of plants. 

All cultivated plants produce seed at some stage of their develop- 
ment. Though other methods of reproduction may be followed in 
practice the seed remains the great original means of plant propaga- 
tion. A knowledge of the principles Involved in the traaisformation 
of seed into plant is essential to intelligent control of crop develop- 
ment. 

k>eeU formation begins with the flower differing for each kind of 
plant. So far as the purposes of reproduction are concerned all pos- 
sess one characteristic In common. All Flowers possess Sex. 

Sex of Plants — Reproduction is possible only by the Influence of 
both sexes. In plants, however, both sexes may be united In a single 
plant. 

Flowers are the reproductive organs, — the sex evidence, — of plants. 
They are of three different kinds according to their single or double 
sex functions. 

Bisexual flowers have all reproductive organs present In the same 
flower. Beans illustrate this class of plant. 

Monoecious plants bear flowers of different 8ex«9 on the same 



LAND TEACHING. 9 

plant. Indian com. illustrates this form of development, the tassel 
being the male and the silk the female organ. 

Dieoecious plants produce the two sexes on different Individual 
plants. Asparagus is of this nature. 

Tlie female organ of the flower is the stamen, and the maleTi the 
j'istll. Therefore, staminate flowers are female and pistillate are male. 
Flowers possessing both these organs in the same individual are called 
perfect flowers. 

Pollen is the male element developed on the pistils of either male 
or perfect flowers. This is the yellow dust so lavishly produced by 
corn tassels and other pistillate flowers. The carrying of this fertil- 
izing burden Is the special office of bees and explains their importance 
In the development of so many fruits. This fimction is particularly 
essential with all members of the melon family. 

Another fact of the utmost importance is dependent on this matter 
of the Bex of flowers. 

Some varieties of certain plants have flowers of only one sex. In 
order to produce fruit, therefore, it Is indespensable that another vari- 
ety of this kind of plant, with flowers of the other sex, should grow 
In close proximity to the former. 

Strawberries are the best illustration of this condition. This fact 
explains what seems a mystery to many people. They plant a single 
variety and then wonder why plants which bloom freely never bear 
fruit. 

A few varieties of strawberries have perfect flowers; many more 
produce either pistillate or staminate flowers alone. It Is necessary 
to know the sex of the variety. Then if Its blossoms are of one sex, 
one row of staminate plants should be set for every three rows of pis- 
tillate that the blossoms of the latter may be fertilized and produce 
fruit. 

The seed Is the direct product of the flower. Seed formation is the 
object for which the flower develops. It contains the germ of life, the 
embryonic plant. It is the direct means of most plant reproduction. 

Propagation, by Buds — All other forms pf plant perpetuation depend 
on some form of bud instead of seed for the purpose. 

A bud is a part of the stem of a plant, which, when severed from 
the parent plant, grows independently. This new plant may grow 
either by developing its own root system in the ground, or by uniting 
with the growing tissue of an already growing plant. 

."Propagation by cuttings illsutrates the former and by grafting the 



10 LAND TEACHING. 

latter method, of development. In all the various forms of bud propa- 
gation the bud is the essential part of the plant used. 

Various parts of the parent plant may be used. Stems furnish the 
cuttings from roses, the layers of raspberries, and the runners with 
strawberries. A part of the leaf may be used from begonias, a "slip" 
from geraniums, and merely a bud from the orange tree. A bulb makes 
the new plant in the case of hyacinth or onion set and a tuber with the 
Irish potato. In the former the original stem continues to grow from 
its central bud, in the latter the eye is really the bud of an under- 
grouni stem. In all cases the bud makes new growth and reproduces 
the plant from which it came. 

There are two important reasons for the common use of buds rather 
than seed for plant reproduction. First, many plants do not produce 
seed In one season. Onions illustrate this kind of plant. A second 
year's growth from the first year's bulb is necessary for the develop- 
ment of seed. 

Second, the seeds of many plants do not "come true," that Is, when 
planted, they do not produce plants like that from which they come. 
This is particularly true of fruit-bearing trees, and is the cause for 
the almost universal dependence on grafting for the perpetuation of 
varieties. 

The simple reason for the fact that seeds from so many plants do 
not reproduce their kind is that seed often result from, — 'and repre- 
sent the characteristics of, — ^two very unlike parents. This fact Is 
demonstrated in the frequent presence of corn of several kinds and 
colors on a single cob. This condition is equally true of a peach or 
strawberry seed, though not apparent to the eye. 

The bud, on the other hand, is a part of a single plant. It represents 
only one parent and may be depended on to unfailingly reproduce the 
characteristics of the parent plant. 

GERMINATION. 

The growth of a plant begins with the germination of the seed. 
For this life-function three things are necessary, — ^heat, water and 
air. 

Temperature — The amount of heat required for germination differs 
greatly with different kinds of seed. Radishes begin growing at com-, 
paratlvely low temperatures. Cucumbers, on the other hand, require 
considerable warmth for the same process. 

Tiij germination of most common seeds takes place best at tempera- 



LAND TEACHING. 11 

tures ranging from 55 to 75 degrees. Within these limits temperature 
affects the length of time required rather than the final result. 

Moisture — The nrst effect of water upon the seed la to cause it to 
swell. This is because the seed absorbs water exactly like eny other 
dry porous substance . 

The result of this absorption of water Is that the seed Is softened 
10 that the germ easily forces its way out of its close envelope as 
soon as growth oegins. 

The next function of this absorbed water is chemical. It starts fer- 
mentation, and this process is necessary to prepare the first food for 
the liring plant just beginning to develop. 

The germ, heart or living part, of the seed is but a comparatively 
small part of the whole seed. The chief bulk of the seed, within the 
hard envelope, consists of starch, as is easily seen in a grain of wheat 
or kernel of corn. This starch is stored up food awaiting the demand 
of the new plant. The tiny plantlet, however, cannot feed directly 
on starch. This must be changed into glucose before it can actually 
be used by the plant. Fermentation is the means by which this change 
Is effected. 

When dry grain or meal is immersed In water bubbles of gas begin 
to rise In a few hours and the water soon has a sour smell. Fermen- 
tation has begun. 

This Is exactly what takes place in the moistened seed. The re- 
sult of the fermentation. Is that the young plant is provided with food 
to sustain life till it has developed to the point whera its tiny rootlets 
are able to begin the process of taking food from the soil. 

Air — ^With the beginning of germination the seed has become a living 
thing. To every living thing air is indispensable. The seeds of a few 
plants which germinate under water contain considerable air within 
themselves. 

Young plants do not actually breathe air. Its chief ofllce Is to supply 
oxygen for the process of fermentation just described. That it is 
indispensable to this process is illustrated by the well known fact 
that fermentable substances do not ferment when air is excluded by 
hermetically sealing. 

This necessity for air explains a fact often noticed. When heavy 
rains fall and pack day soil hard before sown seed have germinated 
the stand is often very small. This is not because of difficulty of 
young plants to come through the hard soil, but because the impacted 
soil will not allow air to reach the sprouting seed. 



12 LAND TEACHING. 

The soil must lie close around the seed, but not so much so as to ex- 
clude air. The amount of pressure needed to pack the soil sufficiently 
for supplying water must vary with the kind of soil, being greatest 
with porous sand and least with dense clay. 

PLANT GROWTH. 

When the young plant, starting either from seed or bud, enters upon 
its independent existence it begins to grow. Plants, like animals, grow 
by the formation of new cells. These new cells are new plant sub- 
stance formed by the assimilation of food. 

Plant growth, therefore, involves two separate processes, — feeding 
and growing. These are really cause and effect, since the result of 
feeding is growth. 

The process of plant feeding involves organs and parts of the plant 
the functions of which are best understood through familiarity with 
the processes of growth. The latter, therefore, will be considered 
first. 

HOW PLANTS GROW. 

Stem and Root — When the seed sprouts it sends out two shoots. 
One of these begins to reach up for air and light. The other immediately 
goes down in search of moisture and soil food. The former becomes 
a stem, the latter a root. From these two organs the whole system 
of the plant is developed. 

The stem bears leaves, buds and fruit. It also provides the chan- 
nel through which sap, — the life fluid of plants, — flows between root 
and leaf. It is the life current which conveys prepared food to all 
parts of the plant and supplies the material for new growth. 

Leaves — These are the breathing organs of the plant. They are 
attached to the stem at regular intervals and consist of a frame- 
work of veins covered with thin cellular tissue. This tissue is nearly 
transparent so that sunlight passes through with little obstruction. 
Lteaves are usually green in color and contain chlorophyl which is the 
active principle in enabling leaves to consume air food. 

The upper surface of leaves is more dense and darker colored than 
the under surface. The latter is filled with Infinitely small openings 
or mouths called ctomata. It Is through these openings that leaves 
Iraw their supply of air. 

The pores of the leaf also perform the same function for plants as 
the pores of the skin perform for animals. It is through the leavoa 



LAND TEACHING. 13 

that water absorbed from the soil through the roota is exhaled Into the 
air. This Is a vital process of plants called transpiration. 

Buds,— These form the tip of every live part of the stem. It is from 
the bud that new growth develops. This new growth may produce 
such different parts of the plant as stems, branches and flowers. 

Root Hairs — The growing roots of plants are covered with delicate 
fibres so fine as to often look like mould or finest down. They are root 
hairs which are the feeding organs of plants for securing water and 
food from the soil. Soil food enters the plant only in form of solution 
dissolved by water which is drawn into the root by means of these 
root hairs. Then by osmosis and other forces the solution rises through 
the stem supplying the cells with food. 

Growth is thus provided for. 

HOW PLANTS FEED. 

Two Kinds of Food — If any part of a dry plant is burned, smoke and 
gas are given off into the air. Part of the plant is combustible, it goes 
back into the air because it came from the air; it is air material. 

If this burning is stopped soon the wood, or other vegetable matter, 
Is only charred; charcoal or carbon Is produced. Carbon, therefore, 
is the chief part of this air material of plants. 

If the burning or combustion is allowed to continue the charcoal 
disappears. The carbon and other air materials all pass back Into the 
air whence they came and ashes alone remain behind. This la the 
mineral or soil material of plants. 

It is therefore apparent that plants consist of two distinct kinds of 
matter, — combustible, or air matter, and non-combustible, or soil mat- 
ter. Since plants are made of the materials which they consumed as 
food their food must consist of two classes of material, atmospheric 
and soil. 

It Is known that these two groups are made up as follows: I. 
Atmosplieric: Water, carbonic acid, ammonia. II. Soil: Phos- 
phoric acid, potash, soda, silica, lime, magnesia, iron oxide, sulphuric, 
nitric and hydrochloric acids. 

Certain plants contain a few other substances, but all cultivated 
plants always contain all of the above named materials. Unless all 
of these substances are available in the food of crops normal develop- 
ment Is impossible. 

Mutual dependence of Animals and Plants. — lAU living things con- 
alst of two classes of matter, combustible and non-combustible, organ* 




COWPBA PLANT, SHOWING ROOT NODULES BY MEANS OP WHICH THE 
PLANT TAKES NITROGEN FROM THE AIR. 



LAND TEACHING. 15 

Ic and inorganic. Yet plants feed only on inorganic matter. They pos- 
sess tUe power of changing water, carbonic acid and nitric acid into 
organic matter. They are able to take water and carbonic acid which 
not only will not burn, but which will extinguish fire, and reccmbine 
them Into substances which will burn. 

Neither of these two classes of matter can alone produce plant 
growth. The presence of each is indispensable to the use of the other. 
Tlae atmospheric ingredients of plants make the transformation of soil 
material Into vegetable matter possible. In like manner soil constitu- 
ents are necessary to the change of atmospheric foods into animal and 
vegetable forms. 

USING ATMOSPHERIC FOOD. 

Food enters the plant through two different organs, — the leaf and 
the root. Carbonic acid and a little oxygen are taken directly from the 
air through the leaves. All other plant food is taken up by the roots 
and dissolved In soil water. 

Organic Inflredients of Plants — These are of air origin and consist 
chiefly of starch, sugar, cellulose fat and albuminoids. The latter 
contain nitrogen. The other substances consist entirely of carbon, hy- 
drogen and oxygen. 

The process by which these vegetable compounds are formed is sim- 
ple. Sunlight is the active agent in their formation. 

Air always contains carbonic acid. It is exhaled by all animals and 
is a product of all decay. Air containing carbonic acid comes Into 
contact with plant leaves and enters them through their stomata. 

By the action of sunlight the carbonic acid is decomposed, broken up. 
Its oxygen Is liberated to pass back itno the air which is thus purified 
by the growth of plants. The carbon remains behind and combines 
with the elements In the sap of the plant to form the carbohydrates, 
the starches^ sugars, gums and fibre of which the plant so largely 
consists. 

For the formation of the Albuminoid, — or nitrogenous constituents 
of plants, — which form so large a part of fruits and seeds, a further 
process is necessary. 

The action of nitric acid, taken from the soil, upon the ingredients 
of the plant sap taken from the air, results in the formation of this 
class of plant compounds. By these two processes the entire organic 
mass of vegetation Is formed. 



16 LAND TEACHING. 

USING SOIL FOOD. 

Roots are the parts of the plant through which soil food enters the 
circulation of the plant. Root hairs are organs directly engaged in this 
food absorption. 

Soil food enters the plant only In the form of solution. 

Means of Solution — Water is of course the direct medium of solution, 
but water alone is not responsible for all the dissolving action going on 
in the soil. Soil waters always contain certain minute quantities 
of mineral acids formed by chemical action in the soil itself. Ammonia 
is a product of all decay. Carbonic acid, nitric acid, and ammonia 
greatly Increase the dissolving power of water. 

By the presence of these active agents insoluble soil minerals are 
either directly dissolved or are converted into soluble compounds. 

Moreover the root Itself secretes an organic acid exerting a great 
dissolving power on soil minerals and enabling the plant, to a consid- 
erable extent, to render its own food available. 

Selection of Food — Though roots have no power of rejecting material 
once in solution in the soil they possess a cerain power of selection 
by being able to seek out places or localities containing the food of 
which, they stand in immediate need. 

PlaHts are incapable of selecting the food actually required and re- 
jecting that not needed. It is necessary, therefore, to show how differ- 
ent plants, wholly unlike in nature and comiposition can grow side by 
side In the same soil yet extract different foods from that soil. 

The cell wall possesses osmose action; certain substances in solution 
pass through the membrane while others do not. 

Soil water continues to dissolve each mineral constituent until Its 
point of saturation is reached. This means that when the solution can 
contain no more of any single food material the dissolving of that 
particular substance stops. The root takes up fhe entire saturated 
solution, which is the same strength inside and outside the cell. 

The plant requires some of one or more of these materials. The 
needed material parses through the cell wall and becomes a part of 
the tissue of the plant. 

The solution inside of the cell thus becomes more dilute than that 
outside. Then more of this material enters the cell till the solution is 
again saturated and the strength on both sides is again the same. 

If the plant requires no more of this particular food It absorbs no 
more and the solution being saturated no more can be dissolved. The 
action does not continue and the use of this particular food ceases. 



LAND TEACHING. 17 

In this way any plant satisfies its own demands from the same soil 
water. 

Absorptive Power of Soils — Soil waters are constantly dissolving the 
food materials of soils even when there is no immediate demand by 
plants. It seems at first strange that all the nutriment in soils is 
not washed out and wasted by draining away. This calamity is pre- 
vented by the power of absorption possessed by all soils. This is not 
mere mechanical absorption but a distinct manifestation of chemical 
action. 

All soils possess this property in some degree. Even coarse sand, 

the most parous of soils, is used for purifying water because it filters 

out and absorbs impurities. This absorptive power is the real secret 

of soil fertility. Without it plant food once dissolved would pass 

through and out of the soil if not immediately taken up by plants. 

Not all plant materials are absorbed alike. Ammonia, potash, BOda, 
lime and magnesia are readily absorbed. Silica, phosphoric, sul- 
phuric, hydrochloric and nitric acids are absorbed to only a very slight 
extent. 

The all important fact is that most of the essential constituents of 
plant food are absorbed and retained in the soil in forms available to 
tne plant. Nitric acid is the one most important exception. As this is 
the final product of organic decomposition before the plant actually 
consumes its required nitrogen this fact is of less significance. It 
explains the necessity^ in practice, of applying nitrogenous fertilizers 
only in quantities to meet the immediate needs of crops. 

Ill— PLANT FOOD. 

The material used by plants for making growth is plant food. Fer- 
tilizers and manures are simply the materials used for supplying plant 
food in excess of the supply provided in the soil itself. 

NEEDS OF THE PLANT. 

As already stated plants need for their normal growth fourteen 
different substances. Each of these is equally important. The one 
used in smallest quantity is as indispensable as the one used most 
largely. Moreover, substitution of one food element for another is 
not possible. 

Most soils, however, contain very much more of certain materials 
than of others. Plants also require certain food elements in very much 
greater quantity than others. 



18 LAND TEACHING. 

The demand for certain plant foods is relatively very much greater 
than for others, — far in excess of the capacity of most soils to supply. 
The practical importance of five plant constituents is greater than for 
a 1 others. 

These five are phosphoric acid, nitrogen, potash, lime and magnesia. 
The demand for the last two in excess of the natural supply is only 
occasional, with certain plants or certain exceptional conditions of soil. 
With the other three, however, the demand of cultivated plants is In 
excess of the natural ability of soils to supply. Soils become rapidly 
exhausted by these three elements so that continued productivity neces- 
sitates constant supply uy artificial means. 

THREE ESSENTIALS. 

For these reasons phosphoric acid, nitrogen and potash are consid- 
ered the three essential plant foods. They must be regularly returned 
to soils by artificial means to make good the loss by cropping. They 
are the valuable ingredients of all manures and fertilizers. 

The reason why these three substances are really essential to the 
continued production of crops should be fixed in mind. 

Crops are removed from the soil; they are sold as the market prod- 
uct of the soil. Plant food is the raw material from which, crops are 
made. 

If crops remain on the soil which produced them exhaustion of 
the supply of plant food would be impossible. When corps are 
sent away, as cotton or fruit or milk, the return of the three food 
constituents, — in some form or by some means, is essential to con- 
tinued production. 

FORM OF SUPPLY. 

Plant food cannot be supplied to crops in the form in which the 
plant must finally use it. Nitrogen in its pure state is a gas. Phos- 
phoric acid and potassium never exist in pure state In nature, nor re- 
main pure long after artificially produced. 

Commercially, therefore, they must be purchased, shipped and ap- 
plied in some one of the different forms in which they can be pro- 
cured. 

The case is identical with that of animal foods. Animals need 
protein, but there is no way by which pure protein can be practically 
supplied. Even could this be provided animals would not find it pala- 
table and would not eat it. We, therefore, provide beef or wheat 
bran as a source of protein for animals. 



LAHID TEAOBING. 19 

Commercial fertilizers and manures occupy the same place with 
plants that bread, beef, vegetables, hay and grain do with animals. 

Nitrogen for plants is supplied in the form of animal and vege- 
table wastes, and chemicals. Phosphoric acid comes from animal 
bones and mineral phosphates. Potash is used in the shape of ashes 
and potash salts. 

In each case the form is merely a matter of convenience and 
economy. The real object and value lies in the supply of one of the 
three plant food essentials. 

SOURCE OF SUPPLY. 

Several forms of fertilizers contain more than one plant food es- 
sential. This is noticeably so of farm manures which contain all 
three in varying proportions. Most fertilizing materials of animal 
or vegetable origin contain two of the essentials, though often the 
phosphoric acid is not in a form to be immediately available to 
plants. 

Phosphoric Acid is used chiefly as phosphate of lime. The largest 
supply comes from animal bones and mineral phoisphates. The chief 
deposits of the latter used in America are the petrified remains of 
prehistoric animals found in South Carolina, Florida and Tennessee. 

The phosphate of lime in these sources of supply is Insoluble and, 
therefore, not available to plants. It is converted into soluble, 
or available, phosphate by being treated with sulphuric acid. 

The product is super-phosphate, or acid phosphate, by which name 
It is known commercially. 

Nitrogen exists as one of the constant ingredients of the air. 
Plants, however, are not able to take this essential directly from this 
inexhaustible source. 

Certain plants of the pea and bean family, known as legumes, have 
the power of fostering bacterial action in the soil by means of which 
nitrogen is taken from the air and incorporated with the soil where it 
becomes available to plants. 

Nitrogen Is a constituent of all animal and vegetable matter. By 
decomposition of the latter ammonia is found and this in turn be- 
comes changed into nitric acid, in which form the nitrogen contained 
is used by plants. 

Animal manures, blood, tankage and cottonseed meal supply nitro- 
gen by this process. 

Nitrate of soda is a mineral salt found in large deposits, and Bul- 



to LAND TEAOHTNG. 

pliate of ammonia is a product of gas manufacture very largely used 
for fertilizing purposes. 

Potash is the essential most restricted In sources of supply. It -is 
a constituent of all wood ashes, but this source is now of little com^ 
merclal importance. Nitrate of potash, or saltpeter, is a natural 
deposit in tropical countries. The Batural supply Is so limited as to 
be of little agrriculturai importance. It is produced artificially in 
certain industries in a form used for fertilizing purposes. 

The great source of agricultural potash is found In the Hartz 
Mountains in Germany. Several of these salts of potash are used as 
fertilizers. The sulphate, muriate, kainit and double-manure salt are the 
best known. Each has its special adaptions. 

fhe muriate is the most economical for general use. The sulphate 
Is particularly adapted to fruit and crops like hops, where aroma and 
flavor are important qualities. The double-manure salt seems to meet 
the particular demands of citrus fruits and tobacco, while kainit is a 
specific for cotton in sections where the crop is subject to the yellow 
rust. 

AVAILABILITY. 

It Is Important to bear in mind that plants consume food only 
In solution. This fact has particular significance in connection with 
two of the three essentials. Phosphoric acid and nitrogen both exist 
In forms practically useless to plants because so extremely and 
■lowly soluble in the soil as to be practically unavailable. 

Natural phosphates are all unavailable until treated with acids. 
Organic nitrogen, — the form existing in leather, horn and peat, — 
though very abundant, is practically useless as plant food. The most 
unfortunate condtion in this connection is the fact that the chemist 
Is unable to detect the difference in the forms of nitrogen of animal 
origin. 

Potash In all its commercial forms is immediately available as 
plant food. 

PROPORTIONS AND QUANTITIES. 

The basis for determining what and how much fertilizer to use is 
found in the composition of the crop to be grown. 

In practice this must naturally be modified by the conditions of 
growth of the crop in question. Two such conditions would be 
wue ability of procuring nitrogen from the air by bacterial action and 
the presence of tap roots capable of securing food from great depths. 



LATf!D TEACHING. 21 

The old idea that analysis of the soil could show the food demands 
of the crop it was to produce is now discarded. 

The crop not the soil is the thing to be supplied with plant food, — 
fertilizer. Even were this not so true, analysis of the soil can only 
show what is present at the time the analysis was made. Yet air and 
rain, heat and cold, are all the time at work on soil constituente. 
Plant food is constantly being dissolved, so that no analysis can pos- 
bly show what may be available during the entire growing season. 
FERTILIZER CALCULATIONS. 

This matter is really very simple though looked upon as a mystery 
by many people to whom it is of most importance. 

Any person who can correctly calculate the number of acres in a 
field can calculate the formula, analysis, or value of any fertilizer. 

It is not necessary to know the properties of the different fertilizing 
materials. It is not necessary even to know the meaning of terms or 
words ususally found on fertilizer sacks or tags. 

Never mind about "potential ammonia," "citrate soluble," and the 
other confusing expressions. 

The valuable part of any fertilizer consists of three things only: 
Available phosphoric acid, nitrogen and potash; K20. is simply a 
short way of saying potash, just as Mr. is short for Mister. To the 
chemist the letters "K20. convey a little additional information, of no 
practical value to you. 

The term per cent, is simply short for parts in a hundred. One per 
cent, simply means 1 part in 100 parts — 1 pound in 100 pounds. 

To Make a Given Analysis — The most common query from farmers 
wishing to mix fertilizer is: "How can I make this analysis?" 

We will show how to proceed by taking an actual case. Suppose 
we would mix an 8 — 3 — 3 formula. 

This analysis means that 100 pounds of the mixed fertilizer con- 
tains 8 pounds of phosphoric acid, 3 pounds of nitrogen, and 3 pounds 
of potash. 

One ton contains twenty hundred pounds. Therefore one ton con- 
tains twenty time sas much of each ingredient as 100 pounds contains. 

Multiply the per cent, by 20— This gives the number of pounds of 
each ingredient in one ton. This is the first and indespensable step 
in calculating a formula. In the above case, 8 multiplied by 20 equals 
160; 20 multiplied by 3 equals 60; 20 multiplied by 3 equals 60. 
One ion of this fertilizer, therefore, contains 160 pounds of phosphoric 
acid, 60 pounds of nitrogen, and 60 pounds of potash. 



22 LAUD TEACHING. 

To make a fertilizer analyzing 8 — 3 — 3 it is simply necessary to use 
enough of each of the raw materals at hand to supply the above 
number of pounds. 

For phosphoric acid we will use acid phosphate containing 16 per 
cent, of available phosphoric acid. We need 160 pounds of this avail- 
able acid. To find the quanitty of raw material needed to supply the 
per cent of the ingredient desired divide the number of pounds of the 
Ingredient in question in one ton of the mixed fertilizer, by the number 
of pounds of that ingredient in 100 pounds of the material to be used. 
iae result will be tne number of hundreds of pounds of the raw ma- 
terial used to give the percentage desired in the formula. 

In the case in hand 160 pounds divided by 16 equals 10. Therefore, 
1,000 pounds of acid phosphate gives 8 per cent of available phos- 
phoric acid in one ton of 8 — 3 — 3 fertilizer. 

For nitrogen we will use cotton-seed meal. This contains 6.18 
per cent. — pounds per hundred — of nitrogen. We need 60 pounds of 
nitrogen to furnish 3 per cent, in the finished fertilizer. 

Now follow the rule: 60 pounds divided by 6.18 equals 9.6. There- 
fore we must use 960 pounds of cotton seed meal to supply the 3 per 
cent, of nitrogen in the proposed mixture. 

We now require 60 pounds of potash to complete our formula. 
Part of this is supplied by the cotton seed meal which contains 1.8 per 
cent of potash. The 960 pounds of meal used, therefore, contains 17 
pounds of potash, which leaves 43 pounds to be supplied. 

We will use muriate of potash for this purpose. This contains 51 
per cent, of potash. Following the rule we find that 43 divided by 
51 equals 0.84. To supply the full amount of potash, we therefore, 
need 84 i>ounds of muriate. 

Our complete formula would now contain — ' 

Pounds 

Acid photphate 1,000 

Cotton seed meal 960 

Muriate of potash 84 

Total ..2.044 

It is now seen that we have mixed a little more than 2,000 pounds. 
In home practice this is immaterial. The figures given are, however, 
rather inconvenient for weighing and figuring. It must be remem- 
bered that we have taken the guaranteed composition of the raw 
materials used. These are the minimum or lowest content. In order 



LAUD TEACHING. 23 

to be on, the safe side most raw materials, and fertilizer chem^icals, 
acutally run over the guarantee. It is, therefore, perfectly safe, and 
more convenient, to use even quantities in mixing. 
Our practical formula would, therefore, best be made up as follows: 

Pounds 

Acid phosphate 970 

Cotton seed meal 950 

Muriate of potash 80 

One ton 2,000 

Analysis: 8—3—3. 

HOW TO FIND THE ANALYSIS OF A GIVEN MIXTURE. 

It is very common for a farmer to have certain materials on hand 
or available, which he thinks of using in certain proportions. He would 
however, like to know the composition or analysis of the proposed 
mixture. 

Let us take a common mixture: Acid phosphate, 16 per cent, 1,000 
pounds; cotton seed meal, 800 pounds, and kainit, 200 pounds. One 
thousand pounds of acid phosphate, 16 pounds of phosphoric acid per 
hundred, contains 160 pounds of available acid. Eight hundred pounds 
oi meal, 6.18 pounds oi nitrogen per hundred — contains 50 pounds of 
nitrogen. Two hundred pounds of kainit, 12.5 pounds per hundred, 
contains 25 pounds of potash. The 800 pounds of meal contains 1.8 
pounds per 100, or 14.4 pounds of potash. 

We have therefore. In this mixture: phosphoric acid, 160 pounds; 
nitrogen, 50 pounds; potash, 39.4 pounds. 

To find the per cent, of each of these amounts in one ton we divide 
each by 2,000, with the following result: Phosphoric acid, 8 per cent.; 
nitrogen, 3 per cent.; potash, 2 per cent — analysis, 8 — 3 — 2. 

Calculating Value — We mean the commercial or market value, as 
crop, season and price of crops must determine the agricultural or 
real value to the user. 

The average wholesale price of the materials used is the basis for 
this calculation. This varies with trade conditions, but the average 
vaiue of the th.ree essentials may be accepted as about 4 cents per 
pound each for phosphoric acid and potash, and 18 cents per pound 
lor nitrogen. 



24 LAND TEACHING. 

The value of the above formula would, therefore, be as follows: 

160 pounds phosphoric acid, at 4c $ 6.40 

56 pounds nitrogen at ISc 10.08 

39 pounds potash at 4c 1.56 

Tax, mixing and bagging 2.60 

Value per ton $20.64 

The last item is allowed by most States as a fair charge. To it 
must be added the cost of transportation from place of manufacture 
to consumer. 

Converting Nitrogen and Ammonia — These terms are used so inter- 
changeably that it is necessary to be able to convert each into the 
equivalent of the other. 

To change per cent, of ammonia into nitrogen, multiply by 0.8235. 

To convert per cent, of nitrogen into equivalent in ammonia, mul- 
tiply by 1.214. 

Here is the way: 3 per cent, of ammonia multiplied by 0.8235 equals 
2.47 per cent, nitrogen; 2 per cent, nitrogen multiplied by 1.214 equals 
2.44 per cent, ammonia. 

To change nitrate of soda Into an equivalent amount of ammonia, 
divide the per cent, of nitrate of soda by 5. 

To change nitrate of soda into an equivalent amount of nitrogen, 
divide the per cent, of nitrate of soda by 6. 

To change nitrogen into an equivalent amount of nitrate of soda, 
multiply the nitrogen by 6. 

To change sulphate of ammonia into an equivalent amount of 
ammonia, divide the per cent, of pure sulphate of ammonia by 4. 

To change ammonia into an equivalent amount of sulphate of 
ammonia, multiply the per cent, of ammonia by 3.9. 

To change nitrate of potash into an equivalent amount of nitrogen, 
divide the per cent, of nitrate of potash by 7.2. 

Tlie principles and methods of calculation are the same whatever 
the materials to be used or the formula to be made. Careful study 
of these examples will adapt them to all conditions. 



Part III. 
SIMPLE BOTANY. 



BOTANICAL DIVISIONS: PARTS OF A PLANT. 

Botany is the study of all plant life. The field is so large that the 
subject must be divided into special branches. No one can hope to 
be master of them all. To-day we have men devoting their entire time 
to the study of plant physiology; others working on the classification 
of plants, the diseases of plants and so on, through the numerous 
phases of the subject. 

There are four great divisions in the vegetable kingdom. The name 
of each division is a Greek word of which the ending, phytes, signifies 
"plant;" and the beginning, the kind of plant. The first division con- 
sists of vegetation of the simplest structure and the last takes In the 
most complete plants. 

(a) Thallophites — This group takes in the one-celled plants, as 
algae and also the fungi. Among the latter we find many of the 
causes of plant disease. 

(b) Byrophites — Moss plants. The group consists of mosses, liver- 
worts and allied forms. 

(c) Pterldophites — Fern plants. The horsetails and other forms 
are also within this group. 

(d) Spermatophites — Seed plants. This is the highest and most 
complex group, consisting of all the forms that produce seed, as apples, 
peaches, berries, etc. This group may be divided as follows 

(1) Anglospermes- Seed borne in closed ovary. 

(x) Dicotyledons or Exogens — ^Plants having hard woody stems as 
most trees, leaves netted, veined and the seed always has two cotyle- 
dons (halves). 

(y) Monocotyledons or Endogens — Plants with soft stems and par- 
allel veined leaves as corn; the seed has only one cotyledon. 

(2) Gymnosperms — 'Seed borne naked on an aborted leaf or scale, 
as in the pine family. 




I'AKTS OK A PLANT. 
1, Root; 2, Stem; 3, Leaf; 4, Flower. 



LAND TEACHING. 27 

The dicotyledenous ^oup is the most important one in the study 
of fruits. In floriculture, however, the monocotyledons assume great 
Importance. 

The Parts of a Plant — A single plant may be divided into the follow- 
ing parts Root, stem, bud, leaf, flower, fruit and seed. Each of the 
these parts furnishes the subject for separate consideration. We will 
then take up reproduction, horticultural methods of propagation and 
special fruits. 

THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 

The world about us is commonly divided into three kingdoms — (a) 
the animal, (b) vegetable, and (c) mineral. The component parts" 
of the animal kinguom have ilfe, and all at some time the power of 
free movement. Among the vegetable we have the power of growth 
and life, but not free movement. The minerals are inanimate, being 
placed in position by Nature, and forced to remain there until dis- 
integrated or otherwise changed by some higher power. It would 
have been better, no doubt, to have named the mineral kingdom 
the inanimate kingdom, as there are many inanimate substances that 
are not mineral, among which may be mentioned gases and water. 
Growth in animals and vegetables is entirely different as the 
ends to be attained differ so widely; so also do the food substances 
and likewise the resulting products of growth. Many of the same 
chemical elements found in animals exist also in plants, but In a dif- 
ferent form. A good example of this Is the element carbon, chemical 
symbol being C. Animals get their C. mostly from vegetable substan- 
ces, as sugar and starches. They give off from the lungs, as a product 
of the life process a gas composed of two parts oxygen and one part C, 
called carbon dioxide, chemical symbol CO-2. This gas is taken up 
by all green-producing t-Iants and the C of it used, being made again 
into sugars and starches for the animals. 

The above paragraph serves to show, in a general way, the close re- 
lation existing between the animal, vegetable and inanimate kingdoms. 
The bodies of animals and plants are in the main made up of the third 
class of material; while the products of life processes of animals 
furnish food for plants, and vice-versa. We will now leave the first 
and third divisions taking up for special consideration the second. 

II. THE ROOT. 
Function — .The root functions are to hold the plant in place and to 



28 LAND TEACHING. 

gather food. Not all roots, however, serve to hold plants firm for some 
have aerial roots that dangle about in the air and are attached to 
nothing; neither is all of the food of a plant obtained through the roots 
for some of it is taken in by the leaves. The root system — that Is, 
the entire mass of roots — is generally supposed to take up as much 
space under the ground and to extend as far as the tree does above. 
This is not always the case though, for the roots of some trees ex- 
tend a great deal fartlier on one side than on the other, for they travel 
the path of least resistance and often go around under and over rocks' 
to continue their growth. The roots come into close contact with the 
soil and in that way anchor the plant. Every one knows that it is next 
to impossible to pull a plant from the ground and not break some of 
its roots. 

Kinds of Roots — There are numerous kinds of roots, among which 
may be menioned underground roots, water roots, air roots, clinging 
roots and prop roots. Underground roots may be divided in two main 
classes: 

(a) Tap-rooted Systems. These have a main, leading root that 
goes straight down into the ground; cotton is an example. 

(b) Fibrous-rooted Systems. These have the tip, while the stem 
grows in length for some distance behind the terminal portion. 

Root Hairs — ^Just back of the tip of a growing root are numerous 
little hairs. They are very small and often cannot be seen without a 
magnifying glass. It is through these that the major part of the 
plant food is taken in. They are very delicate and do not live long. 
As the root increases in length the old hairs die and new ones are 
formed nearer the tip. The old roots do not absorb but simply carry 
material. The small hairs near the growing tip do most to maintain 
the life of the plant. These little tube-like sructures weave them- 
selves around the grains of soil and cling tenaciously to them; In 
this way they get in closer contact with a greater soil area and obtain 
more food and moisture. A seedling grown in sand when pulled out 
will bring a number of grains tightly held by the tender roots, show- 
ing how close the contact is with the soil. 

How Roots Feed — 'AH the water and most of the food elements are 
taken in by the roots. The food materials must be in solution as the 
roots cannot take them up in a pure form. Carbon and oxygen are 
obtained mainly through the leaves; the other elements, as potassium, 
phosphorus, nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, iron, chlorine and 
hydrogen, are taken through the roots. 



LAND TEACHING. 29 

The process by which, the food solution is taken into the plant is 
called Osmosis. To understand osmosis we must first know that two 
Bait solutions when mixed together diffuse one into the other until 
both are of the same specific gravity; that is, the whole mass event- 
ually becomes of the same weight throughout. Now, the separating 
of the original solutions by a permeable membrane does not prevent 
the diffusion; and the weaker liquid always passes into the stronger 
at a more rapid rate than the strongejT does into the weaker. 
Take a sugar solution and separate it by a hog bladder from pure 
water. The water will pass through the bladder into the sugar faster 
than the solution will pass into the water. That is the sugar solution 
will be increased in volume while the water decreases; therefore, 
the space originally occupied by the sugar solution will become too 
small and pressure will result; this pressure if a tube is attached to 
the sugar in such a way as to show it, will cause a rise of liquid in 
the tube. Osmosis is therefore the diffusion of liquids through a per- 
meable membrance. 

The roots and root-hairs are filled with cell-sap which is generally a 
stronger solution than the surrounding soil solution, therefore, the soil 
solution, which contains the food elements, diffuses through the outer 
■cells into the root; gets into the vascular axis and is then conducted 
to the stem. If the soil solution is stronger than the cell-sap the 
greater diffusion is from the plant instead of into it, and it loses its 
sap, thereby dying. This can be easily shown by putting a plant into 
a solution of nitrate of soda that is too strong, and the stronger the 
solution the quicker the death. It is evident, then, that the soil solu- 
tion must be extremely dilute in order not to overpower the cell-sap 
and extract it from the roots. 

After the food is in tue plant it is then conveyed, by root pressure, 
osmotic pressure and other methods that are not well understood, 
into the stem or trunk. 

III. THE STEM. 

The Stem or Trunk is that part of a plant that bears the leaves 
branches and rlowers. It is the stem that generally gives character 
to a plant: we can recognize a pine at a distance by the looks of Its 
truuK and general shape; a Lombardy poplar is easily told by its 
peculiar habit of growth, and so on through numberless varieties of 
pants 

Kinds of Stems — We have numerous kinds of stems. There are 
rigid aerial stems that stand erect and bear great weight of branches 



" -..c.-.fy ••■':- 




KINDS OF STEMS. 
1, Twining; 2, Upright; 3, Crocping : 4, rndergroiind. 



LAND TEACHING. 31 

and leaves, as in trees; then we have the twining type as in many of 
the vines such as the morning-glory, these stems are not able to sup- 
port themselves but must twist about some object in order to get their 
leaves to the light. There is also a recumbent type that grows up 
and then bends over, and the creeping stem as in the strawberry, its 
runners being stems. And as we have roots that live in the air, 
so also do we have stems that live underground and send up shoots 
into the air; these root-stocks or underground stems are found quite 
often among the grasses, our common Bermuda having that. Some 
underground stems are used as food store-houses; such an one Is the 
Irish potato. 

Stems always bear leaves or some modification of them; the un- 
derground stocks have little scales that are true leaves though not 
green. Buds are also borne on the stem; by these charactens stems 
are easily distinguished from roots. Sometimes stems are so short 
and abortive that it is difficult to make a strict separation; but usually 
the region where the root stops and the stem begins is quite plainly 
marked and is called the crown of the plant. 

Office of Stem — We might say that the main office of the stem is 
to bear leaves and hold them to the sunlight. Everyone has seen 
plants in a window and noticed how the stems were often bent towards 
the light. This is caused by an effort to obtain as much sunshine 
as possible. Underground stems are of course, controlled by gravity, 
they, however, often send up leaves into the air and light. Another 
function of the stem is to conduct unelaborated, or simple food, from 
the roots to the leaves and then to distribute the complex, or elaborated 
food materials from the leaves to other parts of the plant. 

Structure of Stems^ — ^We will confine ourselvse to the endogens and 
exogens with just a word about the gymnosperms. , 

Endogens — ^Monocotyledons, as corn and palms. In this class the 
vascular bundles (these are the bundles of tissue through which 
food is conducted) are scattered irregularly throughout the fundamen- 
tal tissue of the stem. They are not parrallel or arranged in circles 
about a common center and are c-osed. On the outside of these stems 
there is a hard rind or epidermis; they do not have the corky bark as 
in the exogens. The trees belonging to this class are found only in 
the tropics, with us there are examples in the Indian corn grasses 
and other small plants. Endogenous stems do not increase in diam- 
eter from year to year and are usually a straight shaft. 

Exogens — Dicotyledons, as maples, oaks and numerous other plants. 



32 LAND TEACHING. 

Ill these the vascular bundles are about a commo ncenter which is 
generally filled with pith. On the outside of the bundle is found the 
cortex of fundamental tissue and then on the outside of the cortex 
comes the epidermis; this latter disappears as the tree grows and the 
cortex becomes a corky layer whicli is principally part of a bark, 
being very thick in some trees as in the cork oak. Just under the 
bark is found the cambium or growing layei- of the stem; and it is here 
that new growth is put on from year to year . The gymnosperms, trees 
like the pine, are much the same as the exogens except that they have 
numerous resin ducts which are not found in the latter; the method 
of growth, arrangement of bundles etc.. is practically the same. 

Other Stems — ^It must not be thought that the above mentioned 
stems are the only kinds, as we have the fern type and numerous 
others, which, however, we lack space to describe. 

Action and Method of Growth of Stem — The following refers to the 
exogens and gymnosperms. The crude food material, or sap comes 
from the roots and upon entering the vascular system of the stem 
Is carried up to the leaves. It makes its ascent in the sapwood that 
is the growth of the last few years; as the tree grows older the heart- 
wood conducts less and less material until finally there is no food 
carried through that part of the tree at all. After the leaves have 
elaborated the sap into food available for use it is then distributed by 
the layer of the stem under the bark. This is the growing layer, the 
cambium: it is the increasing in thickness of this layer, stopped by 
some climatic condition that causes the rings in the trunk of a tree, 
commonly called the annual rings. The age of a tree may be estimated 
by these, though sometimes there is more than one formed in one year. 

The cambium makes two kinds of growth. It forms the bark on the 
outside and another on the inside. The inner part made this year 
becomes sap-wood next; the bark formed this year is pushed out by 
that formed following and must crack and split, being made into corky 
patches by the pushing out of the new bark thus allowing the tree to 
increase in diameter. As the cork becomes old it falls away leaving 
new bark to protect the cambium. This cambium is very important 
in grafting, as will be shown later; it is the cutting of this 
layer in ringing or girdling that causes death, for though in a 
girdled tree the sap can go from the roots to the leaves tlie elaborated 
food cannot get back to the roots, and therefore they starve to death 
and the tree dies the year after is has been girdled. In the cells of 
this layer may be found chlorophyll which gives the greenish color 



LAND TEACHING. 33 

to tbe new bark. This substance will be treated more fully under the 
subject of leaves; the cambium will be referred to again in Horticul- 
tural Methods of propagation. 

Stems grow in length for some distance behind the tip. In this they 
differ from roots, which elongate only at the tip. 

IV. THE BUD. 

A bud is a covered resting, growing point; that is, a winter bud in 
climates where the seasons are well marked is always covered; how- 
ever, in tropical countries, where there is no fear of cold or drought, 
the buds may be naked. Through unfavorable climatic conditions, 
plants .especially trees, are often forced into a period of inactivity, and 
for the same reason that food is stored in tubers and other plant 
parts; so also are embryo branches and flowers formed by the plant. 

A Winter Bud is a shortened branch surrounded by leaves or flow- 
ers, sometimes both ,and the whole protected by a covering. This cov- 
ering is formed of leaf scales closely wrapped about one another. 
The outer scales are really leaves, comparable to the leaves of the 
underground root-stocks mentioned in Chapter III. Sometimes under 
the leaf scales are found rudiments of true leaves and in fruit buds 
may be found the embryo flower. 

When spring comes the shortened branches begin to elongate, the 
outer scales fall away and if embryo true leaves are in the bud they 
expand. If a fruit bud the flower comes out and opens up ready for 
fertilization and the setting of fruit. 

Buds are always found in the axils of leaves; that is, in the ang'e 
made by a leaf stem with the branch of a tree. When frost comes 
the leaves fall ^way leaving a scar which can be easily seen, while the 
bud remains. Sometimes there is more than one bud above the leaf, 
as many as three are quite common. Buds are found on the sides of 
branches and in many plants at the end of the twig. A bud on the 
end of a branch is called a terminal bud, and its purpose is to continue 
the growth of the stem in a straight line the next season. The side 
buds are known as lateral buds. 

There is a struggle for existence between the buds on the limbs 
just the same as there is a struggle for existence in every kind of 
life. Some buds are weak or not in a good position to obtain heat and 
light and therefore do not grow. They may live for several years, 
however, producing no growth. These afe known as dormant buds, 
and if at any time during their existence 'it becomes necessary for the 




1. TERMINAL BUD. 2. LATERAL T.UD, 



LAND TEACHING. 35 

welfare of the tree they spring into perceptible life. This type of bud 
is usually found near the base of the limb. 

Sometimes buds appear on unusual parts of the plant as along the 
branches not above a leaf or on the roots. These buds are never in 
any definite order and are known as adventitious buds. They are 
formed at unusual times as when a limb is cut or injured or even when 
the whole top of a tree is killed. Then sprouts are put forth, known 
as water sprouts. This growth comes from buds made for the occas- 
ion; they did not already exist. 

As mentioned above, buds may produce only branches and leaves 
or simply flowers; still, on the other hand, they may produce all three 
— leaves, branches and flowers: then they are called mixed buds. Ex- 
amples of the latter kind may be found upon the pear and apple. These 
two plants bear their fruit on much sortened branches known as fruit 
spurs; the peach, on the other hand, bears its fruit laterally on the 
wood of last season's growth. The knowledge of these facts helps 
greatly in pruning. Examples of separate fruit and leaf buds occur 
on the apricot, almond, peach and many other early flowering fruits. 

Within the fruit buds of a plant, we might say, is contained the cro'p 
of the coming season. The scales act as a protection from the cold of 
winter; they are assisted in this by a mucilaginous substance given 
off by the plant. This helps to hold the scales close together and 
keep down the loss of moisture. The protoplasm or living substance 
of the tree being dormant can withstand quite a bit of cold. Some- 
times, however, the temperature goes too low for even the dormant 
protoplasm and the buds are injured, oftentimes being killed. If this 
happens the crop for the coming year is blasted. Possibly the whole 
tree is not killed; if so, then adventitious and dormant buds come 
into play and through their growth sustain the roots. 

The buds that put out in the spring are formed the previous grow- 
ing season by the tree. This is why oftentimes trees skip a year in 
bearing a crop. Heavy fruiting trees take so much of the plant's 
vitality that it cannot form sufRicient fruit buds for the coming year; 
therefore puts its energy into the forming of leaf buds to sustain its 
life. On the off year the food that would have gone to fruit is used in 
the making of flower buds. 

V. LEAVES. 

A leaf is that part of a plant that is borne just below a bud. In the 
angle made by a leaf stem with the limb or twig a bud is always found; 
take, for example, the leaf of a honey locust, the small little green 




ble 



KIND OF LEAVKS. 

1. CompoiiiKl li-af of clover. 4. Compouiul leaf of hickory. 

2. I'almately compound leaf of a hram- «. I'rimatPly compound leaf of 



.Taiianesc walnut. 

."{. Simple. lu-iniately. netted veined 5. ralmatcly veined leaf of cotton. 
leaf of Elm. 



LAND TEACHING. 37 

blade commonly called a leaf is not one, for where its stem joins the 
stalk there is no bud; now follow that stalk till it joins the next, you 
do not find a bud, therefore that is not a leaf; follow the next stem and 
where it joins the limb there is a bud, so all above that point is the 
leaf, a compound one, to be sure, and the little green blades are leaf- 
lets. A leaf is composed of three parts, stipules, petiole or stem, and 
blade. The stipules are at the base of the petiole where it joins the 
branch, sometimes they are large and easily seen, at others they are 
sm,all and fall away early, leaving a scar that is so small that it can 
hardly be seen. The petiole is the leaf stem, the part that holds the 
blade. The blade is that portion above the petiole, usually flattened 
and the most showy part of the leaf. 

Leaves have various shapes; some are cordate or heart shaped, oth- 
ers oval, round, lancelate or long and narrow like a lance, etc. The 
blades may have their margins, or outer edges entire, that is even, or 
toothed and lobed in many ways. Sometimes the lobes are so deep 
that the blade is broken up into numerous little bladelets known as 
leaflets. All degrees from entire margins to separate leaflets can be 
easily seen in the woods. When the lobing is so great that separate 
leaflets are formed we have a compound leaf. This leaf may be com- 
posed of some two or three leaflets, as in the clover, or it may be twice 
compound; that is, the leaflets may again break up into more and 
smaller ones, as in the honey locust which has a twice pinnately com- 
pound leaf. 

On all leaves one easily sees the little veins or ridges running 
through the blade. Sometimes the veins are parallel and have no small 
cross-veins connecting them; these leaves usually have entire margins 
and are common to endogenous plants like corn. At other times there 
is one main vein that sends off branches on the sides, and these 
branches run out to the margins, making the latter irregular: between 
these lateral branches are numerous little connecting veins, giving the 
leaf the appearance of a piece of net-work; leaves of this type are 
known as netted pinnately veined, an example is the Elm. Then again, 
instead of one main nerve, there may be several starting at the point 
where the petiole joins the blade and running to different lobes, these 
veins also give off laterals which are connected by cross-veins. A 
leaf of this type is palmately netted veined. Palmate means hand- 
like; a maple leaf is a good example of this type. Netted veined leaves 
are common to exogenous plants in the same way that parallel veined 
ones are to endogens. The veining of the leaves often helps to distin- 



3f LAND TEACHING. 

guish between the two kinds of plants, though occasionally it does not 
hold true. 

Leaves are influenced by light, more than any other part of the 
plant, and it is necessary for the life of the plant that the leaves re- 
ceive plenty of sunshine. Whenever it is impossible for a leaf to get 
the light it dies and falls off; for instance, looking up into a tree from 
directly underneath one sees naked limbs with a canopy of waving 
leaves; on the other hand, if one looks down a tree from 
above he sees nothing but leaves. Plants have many methods of keep- 
ing their leaves from being shaded. The largest laves are 
near the bottom and the higher up one goes, as a general 
rule, the smaller the leaf. Especially is this true with herbaceous 
plants and shrubs. Another way of obtaining light is for the plant 
to form a rosette, having the petioles shorter on the top leaves and 
the whole bunch close to the ground. The lengthening of the petiole 
on the lower leaves is quite a common method of preventing shading. 
All shading cannot be prevented and sometimes the light is too strong 
so some plants have means of regulating the surface exposed; a com- 
mon one is the prickly lettuce, which has its leaves on edge so that 
In the middle of the day the sun will not strike them directly. Other 
plants have the power of folding their leaves to protect them from 
light and transpiration; this latter subject will be spoken of later. 

Functions of Leaves. — These are numerous; we, however, will con- 
sider only three. One of the principal actions of the leaf is photosyn- 
thesis, meaning literally, putting together by light. This function may 
in part be described as the taking in of carbon dioxide, C02, retaining 
the carbon and giving off the oxygen in the presence of sunlight. 
Photosynthesis does not go on in the dark, though it has been noticed 
to talve place under an electric arc light. Leaves talc ein the C02 
given off by animals and by the energy of the sunlight break it up, 
using the C in building up food and returning the O free to the air. 
The energy necessary for this work Is obtained from the sun. The 
green color of the leaves is caused by chlorophyll; this substance ab- 
sorbs the sunlight and turns the energy thus obtained to use for the 
life processes of the plant. Plants that have no green color and parts 
of plants that lack chlorophyll do not perform photosynthesis. Sub- 
stances from the roots and the carbon from leaves are made into 
starches, sugars, etc.; these are the elaborated food that are distri- 
buted throughout the plant and stored in tubers, etc. 

A second leaf function is transpiration. This is the giving off of 
water into the air. The roots take food in solution and therefore ab- 



LAND TEACHING. 39 

sorb more water than is absolutely necessary for the plant; a great 
part of this water is given back to the air by the leaves. Transpira- 
tion increases in wind and hot weather. There is always a certain 
amount of water being given off through the stomata, openings in the 
leaves, to see which a compound microscope is necessary; and some- 
times, as during a drought, the roots cannot take in enough water to 
keep life in the plant and supply transpiration, so the leaves wilt. 
If this condition continues for too long and becomes worse and worse 
the tree finally dies. Transpiration goes on at night as in the day, so 
some plants have the power of toisJing or drooping their leaves, de- 
creasing the surface exposed to the iicticn of the air, and in that way 
lessening the loss of water: this pcsi.lon is often called the sleeping 
position of plants. 

The last function of leaves that we will take up is respiration. This 
is the reverse of photosynthesis, that is, the taking in of oxygen and 
the giving off of carbon dioxide, C02. For a long time it was not 
known that plants carried on respiration as animals do, yet they do, 
though not to as great an extent. The leaves are not the especial or- 
gans of respiration as the lungs of man; other parts of the plant, not 
always green, also have respiration. Though this is one of the leaf 
functions, photosynthesis and transpiration are looked upon as the 
main ones. 

VI. THE FLOWER. 

Every one is more or less familiar with flowers; their beauty attracts 
the eye, and in many cases their odor pleases the sense of smell. Yet 
most of us have a very indefinite idea of how they are formed, and why 
the plant produces them. They are one of the most important subjects 
in botany, as a great deal of classification is based upon the make-up of 
the flower. Plants producing the same kind of flowers are placed in the 
same family, though one may be a tree and the other a shrub not over 
two feet high. It will be out of the question for us to take up or even 
mention all the different kinds of flowers in this small space. If any 
are sufficiently interested to wish to study further a couple of good 
books to get would be L. H. Bailey's Botany and Plant Relations, by 
Coulter. 

Parts of the Flower — A stem bearing a single flower at the top is 
called a peduncle; also the main stem of a cluster of flowers has the 
same name; the stem of each separate flower in a cluster is known as 
a pedicle. Sometimes plants, such as the dandelion, send up a straight 




^ ^ - Petals 

— )L - - p.ifil 



' - -- sepal cf- /soUUvv. 






4w U^bel -^ 





Kl.xns OF FLOWKUS, 



cvppu 



LAND TEACHING. 41 

Stem from the crown and on top of this is found one or more flowers; 
such a stem never has any leaves though it may have bracts, and is 
called a scape. 

All parts of a flower, except the enlarged head of the stem, are really 
modified leaves. Just before reaching the real flower there is some- 
times a whorl of little green leaves. This is known as the involucre 
and is more often absent than present. The next part seen is the 
calyx. It may be a green cup, variously toothed and lobed, or com- 
posed of numerous separate parts known as sepals. Inside of the 
calyx the corolla is found; this is usually the showy part of the flower. 
It may be of one piece and variously lobed or made up of distinct 
parts; when separate the parts are known as petatls. Within the co- 
rolla are the stamens. They are little organs composed usually of two 
parts, the filaments, or the part which supports the head, the latter 
being known as the anther. This last is often seen covered with a yel- 
low powder called pollen. Within the whorl is found the pistil; this 
may be simple or compound, and is usually composed of three parts. 
The bottom is the ovary. It is here that the seed is produced. Com- 
ing from the ovary is a protuberance, sometimes short, at others long, 
known as the style, and on the end of this is generally a little enlarge- 
ment called the stigma. 

Stamens and pistils are the reproductive organs of flowers. A flower 
to be perfect must have both; if it has only the pistils it is a female, 
or pistilate flower; on the other hand, if it has only the stamens it is 
a male or staminate. Some plants bear perfect flowers; others bear 
male and female flowers on the same plant, and in some species the 
male flower is borne on one plant and the female on another; therefore, 
it is seen that there is sex in plants the same as there is in animals. 

Any part of a flower may be lacking. Usually when either the calyx 
or corolla is gone we say that the corolla is missing and call the flower 
apetalous (without petals). A part still unmentioned is the torus. 
This is the enlarged head of the peduncle upon which the floral parts 
are borne. Sometimes, however, parts are attached to one another. 
We often find the corolla or stamens born on the calyx tube. The 
torus is sometimes called the receptacle, but the former name is the 
more proper of the two and should be used. 

The parts of flowers usually alternate with one another; that is, 
the calyx is placed in a certain way upon the torus and instead of the 
petals being opposite the sepals they are placed between them. When 
the sepals or petals exceed three or five in number they are usually in 
two whorls, and then they alternate with one another; that is, sepals 



42 LATfJD TEACHING. 

alternate with sepals and petals with petals. It is hard, sometimes, to 
distinguish the different parts of a flower as they grade into one an- 
other to such an extent. Flowers double by having their stamens 
change into petals. In some all stages of this evolution can be seen 
from true stamens to true petals. Flowers that have their calyx and 
corolla just alike are said to have a perianth. Lilies are a good exam- 
ple of this. 

Inflorescence — In botany inflorescence does not mean the kind of 
flower but the manner in which the flowers are borne. When there is 
a single flower on the peduncle the inflorescence is said to be solitary. 
Besides the above mentioned form there are two general methods of 
flower arrangement. The first, cormybose clusters, and second, cymose 
clusters. In a cormybose cluster the lower flowers open first and the 
inflorescence is said to be indeterminate. In the cymose clusters it Is 
Just the opposite, the older flowers are at the top of the cluster and the 
inflorescence is said to be determinate. 

In the corymbose form we find the following types: 1st racemes, 
an unbranched open cluster in which the flowers are born on short 
stems and open from below up. Wistaria is a good example. 2nd, the 
spike, in which the flowers are sessile on the elongated peduncle and 
close together. Example Timothy. 3rd. Head, being a very short and 
dense spike. This type of inflorescence is found in the sunflowers. 
4th, panicle, a compound raceme. Because of the lower branches be- 
ing older and longer the panicle is usually conical. Example, orchard 
grass. 5th, Umbel, formed when branches of the flower cluster arise 
from a common point like the frame of an umbrella. A good example 
Is the parsley. Sometimes umbels are compound and the little umbels 
are called umbellets. 

Amongst the cymose cluster there are not as many types. A dense 
cymose cluster like that found in the apple, pear and cherry is known 
as a cyme. A head -like cymose cluster is called a glomerule. Some- 
times a flower cluster may follow in part the cymose type and in part 
the corymbose cluster; such an inflorescence is said to be mixed. 

This series of articles was not intended to go fully into all details of 
botany, so none must feel that we understand all about flowers and in- 
florescence, but must content ourselves with what little we have 
learned and pass on to the next subject. 

VII. REPRODUCTION. 
We have now come to tlie study of a most important and interesting 



LAND TEACHING. 43 

period in the life of plants, reproduction; it is for this that the plant 
lives and grows; after it has made provision for the propagation of the 
species the main work of the season is over. Annuals* plants living 
one year .after producing their seed die, they cease to exist, having pro- 
duced in embryo numerous children. Perennials, plants that live 
for many years, as soon as their seeds are produced, give their energy 
to prepare for next season. Plants have but one object in living and 
that is propagation; all of their time and all of their energies 
are spent to obtain but that one thing; they have no other object 
in life. Reproduction is carried on in the main by two methods: (a) 
sexually or by seed, and (b) vegetavely, or by the use of parts of the 
parent plant. 

Sexual Reproduction — Many people do not know plants like animals 
have sex; that whenever a seed is formed it is done through the 
fusion of a male and female element. Let us see how this fusion Is 
brought about and by what agencies. When looking at a flower a yel- 
low powder is often seen on the anthers, the head of the stamens 
mentioned already. This powder is composed of myriads of little 
yellowish, usually roundish bodies, which are know n as pollen 
grains. These are the male elements. 

Now call to mind the pistil; remember it is composed of three parts, 
the stigma, the style and the ovary. The stigma is the receptive sur- 
face upon which the pollen grain must find its way; this organ .when 
ready for the pollen is covered with a sort of sticky substance. The 
grain of pollen gets upon it and in a short time germinates; that Is, 
sends out a tube which grows down through the style to the ovary, 
within the ovary are found ovules, or female elements; with these 
the tube from the pollen comes in contact and a fusion of the two takes 
place; only one pollen grain acts on each ovule. This is the beginning 
of the seed; it now grows and matures until it is so well formed that 
in the future it will be able to reproduce the parent plant. 

This fusion of the pollen and ovule is called fertilization, and with- 
out this process a species that produces sexually would cease to 
exist unless it also had vegetative methods of propagation; therefore, 
plants have many methods to facilitate and make fertilization easy. 
Large numbers of pollen grains are produced and plants that depend 
upon the vv^ind to distribute their pollen produce much more than other 
species. Sometimes cue hears that a given place has had a rain of 
sulphur or a yellow snow; this is nothing more than pollen produced 
by some pine forest and blown many miles by the wind before it Is 
allowed to settle and cover the whole landscape with golden yellow dust. 




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LAND TEAGHINa. 4S 

Grasses also depend largely upon the wind for carrying their pollen; the 
greater number of plants, however, have other means of obtaining fer- 
tilization, about the most prominent being insects. Flowers are often 
Bhowy, filled with honey and have sweet odors; these things 
attract insects and they come to sip the nectar and in so doing brush 
the pollen off of the anthers and get it scattered over their bodies 
and in moving around are pretty sure to get some of it on the stigrma, 
if not in the flower from which they got the pollen, at least in some 
otuer that they visit. 

When the pollen of one flower gets on the stigma of another 
we have what is known as cross fertilization; if the pollen gets on 
the stigma of the same flower it is said to be self- or close-fertilized. 
Some plants are normally cross fertilized, others self-fertilized. Some 
species to prevent close fertilization have their anthers and stigmas 
ripen at different times ,so there is no chance of pollen getting on the 
stigma of the same flower. It is impossible to tell of all the different 
methods used by plants to obtain the kind of fertilization desired. 
Such a discussion would fill a book of itself. Suffice it to say that 
cross-fertilized seed are considered more vigorous and healthy than 
self-fertilized ones; and also that the probability of pollen from one 
tree finding its way onto the pistil of another is one of the reasons why 
seed do not often come true. That is the pollen from a tree producing 
little yellow peaches may fertilize the stigma of a flower on a tree 
which bears large red fruit; the seed is a cross between a little yellow 
and a large red peacu. the resulting seedling takes after both varieties 
and so there is no telling what it will produce. 

Vegetative Reproduction — This is simply the use of some part of 
the plant to reproduce itself. Sprouts directly from the roots or under- 
ground stems are methods. The strawberry produces by its runners 
as well as from seed. Cuttings are another way. Willows growing 
along the banks of a stream drop their young branches; these are car- 
ried along by the water and getting lodged somewhere on the bank 
take root and produce a tree; there are many vegetative methods of 
reproduction in use among plants. They will however, be treated 
more fully under Horticultural Methods of Propagation. 

Other Methods — Among the fungi and lower plants we have repro- 
duction by spores, single cells which germinate and reproduce the 
plant; another method is budding and still another fission. Budding 
is where the parent cell sends out little buds which themselves become 
plants; yeast cells reproduce this way. Many bacteria, micro-organisms 
of an odd shape, so small that they cannot be seen without the use of a 
powerful microscope, reproduce by fission; that is the cutting in two 



m LAND TEACHING. 

of the parent cell, forming two indivduals. Many of these bacteria also 
produce a spore form. The reproduction of the lower forms, though 
simple in some respects, is even more varied than among the higher 
plants. 

Vv e will next take up a study of the fruit and seed, the two periods 
of a plant's life which are of especial importance and interest to the 
horticulturist and farmer. 

VII. FRUITS IN GENERAL. 
Definitions — A ripened ovary with its various attachments is a fruit. 
A one-celled ovary containing seed is the simplest kind of a fruit; 
and from this type we have all gradations up to the very complex 
structures. The cells or compartments in the ovary are known as 
locales, and as stated above, the least complex kind of a fruit is a one- 
loculed ovary containing one seed; the next in complexity is a two or 
many-celled ovary ripened up. Other parts of the flower often adhere 
to the ovary or change in some way as the fruit matures thus, increas- 
ing the complexity of the structures. The style of the pistil may re- 
main, forming a barb or beak; the calyx often persists or the whole 
fruit may be imbedded in the recepticle or torus, or again the torus 
may be fleshy and have little separate and distinct fruits on its surface; 
the involucre may also become a part of the fruit as the husk of the 
hickory nut or the cup of the acorn. 

A ripened ovary is known technically as a pericarp, and when other 
parts adhere to the pericarp it is known as an accessory or reinforced 
fruit. Some fruits at maturity split open, liberating the seed. This type 
Is known as a dehiscent fruit. Those that do not split or crack open 
are called indehiscent. In the latter type the seed are liberated by 
the decay of the enveloping structure. 

Kinds of Dehiscent Fruits — A dehiscent pericarp is called a pod, 
and the parts into which a pod breaks are valves. The simplest form of 
a dehiscent fruit is a follicle; that is a one-loculed pericarp, which de- 
hisces along the front edge, the edge toward the center of the flower. 
The next form of dehiscence is the legume. This type opens along both 
sutures into two distinct valves; legumes are found in peas, beans 
and clovers, in fact, the name of our great nitrogen-gathering family of 
plants is leguminosae. A compound fruit consisting of several dehisc- 
ing pods bound together is called a capsule. There are several methods 
by which capsules open to let out the seed; when they split along 
the cepta between the pores it is known as septicidal dehiscence, when 
opening in this manner the locules composing the fruit remain entire 
and then themselves dehisce as if they were follicles. If the compart- 




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KINDS OF FRUITS. 



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48 LAND TEACHING. 

ments forming the capsule split in the middle and not along the septa it 
is known as locilidical dehiscence. The opening may take place at 
different parts of the capsule, that is near the top, when it is known 
as apical dehiscence, or near the bottom when it is called basal. 

Indeshiscent Fruits — A dry, one-seeded, indehiscent pericarp is the 
simplest form of this type and is called an akene, example, the dande- 
lion. Winged indehiscent fruits as in the maples and ash are known 
as samarus, or key-fruits. 

We next come to the fleshy fruits in which the seed is liberated by the 
decay of the envelops. Botanically a berry is a fleshy pericarp with 
seeds imbedded in it: the horticulturist, however, calls any small edi- 
ble fruit a berry: the tomato is an example of a true berry. A fleshy 
fruit containing one rather large hard stone or pit is a drupe or stone 
fruit. Examples are the peach, plum, etc. A blackberry is a collection 
of small drupelets. Aggregate fruits are formed by the union of several 
pistils, the carpels being more or less fleshy; raspberries and black- 
berries are examples of this class of fruits. The pomes, drupes, ber- 
ries, etc., will be taken up more in detail later. 

Uses of fruits — The main end to be attained by a fruit is to assist 
In disseminating seed. The dehiscent ones often open with such force 
that the seed are shot to considerable distance; the fruit of the violet 
and witch hazel are good examples of this. Some fruits are barbed 
or covered with hairs which make them adhere to passing objects such 
as men and animals, thus they are spread. The winged fruits are blown 
about by the wind; and still others are made in such a way that they 
are capable of withstanding moisture for a considerable length of time 
vlthout the seed germinating, thus they can be floated long distances 
by water. The small fleshy berries and drupes are eaten by birds 
and the seeds being hard, are not injured by the digestive juices and 
are voided, drop to the ground and sprout. The pomes and large drupes 
are juicy and pleasant to eat, being quite liable to be plucked from the 
tree by any animal that can get them. Though we like to think that 
fruits are especially for man, yet after all they serve a purpose to the 
tree, otherwise they would not be borne. They are intended to be 
eaten; they grow to be plucked, they attract attention by their color, 
and are usually easily seen as they occupy a prominent position on the 
tree simply because they contain the seed and upon the scattering 
of this seed depends the welfare of the species. 

VIII. REPRODUCTION BY SEED. 

The production of seed for the propagation of species is the ultimate 
aim of every plant; some grow for years, flower, produce their seed 



LAND TEACHING. 49 

the succeeding summer. In the fall of the year after the rush of 
spring and the work of summer the plants are content to rest from 
their labors, having accomplished the task of starting thousands of a 
like kind on their way. 

The Seed. — Each seed is a miniature plant. Locked up within it 
is laid the foundation of a plant. The outer coverings of the ovule 
harden and form what is known as the seed^coats; within this and 
often surrounding the embryo, is a food substance, composed 
mostly of starch, which when it surrounds the embryo is called endo- 
sperm; sometimes, however, the food may be stored in parts of the 
embryo as in the cotyledons of the bean and peas. The embryo is the 
miniature plant and several of its parts have received names; the 
little stem is called the caulicle, the seed-leaves the cotyledons, and 
the bud the plumule. 

In a former chapter it was stated that the number of cotyledons 
In the seed was one of the difference between exogens and endogens; 
the exogenous plants being spoken of as dicotyledonous plants and the 
endogens called monocotyledonous; it is seen now that one of the first 
differences between these two great groups of plants lies within the 
seed; one having two seed-leaves and the other only one. Some plants, 
as the pines, have many cotyledons in the seed. 

Just over the point oi the caulicle there is a minute little hole going 
through the endosperm and seed-coats, this is called the micropyle, 
it is through this that the caulicle breaks at germination, also through 
here that water is absorbed in the beginning of germination, the pol- 
len tube likewise entered the forming ovule through this opening. The 
scar left on the seed when it broke from its attachment to the plant is 
known as the hilum; sometimes the hilum and micropyle are close to- 
gether at others they are at opposite ends of the seed. On some 
seeds as in the bean there is an elevation along the edge known as 
raphe, through this food passes into the developing embryo but when 
the seed ripens and is detached from the parent plant the raphe 
becomes functionless. 

Germination — 'Some seeds need a rest of considerable time before 
they germinate, others will spring to life in a few days. Some species 
will grow after twenty years or so while others will die in a week or 
two. 

Heat, air (oxygen) and moisture are necessary to make a seed be- 
come active. Moisture is first absorbed then oxygen enters and the 
two make the food substances of the seed soluble so that they can 
be used by the littTe plant; warmth hastens activity and gives a 



50 LAND TEACHINa. 

Stimulus to growth. During the process of awakening the seed gives 
off carbon dioxide and uses oxygen; germinating seed also give off heat, 
showing that there is some chemical process taking place. The caulicle 
bursts out of the covering and from it comes the first roots; in some 
plants it then becomes fixed and its further growth, forces the cotyle- 
dons out of the ground as in the bean; in other species the seed leaves 
remain underground; from the plumule or bud come the first true 
leaves. As soon as the plant is established and no longer depends upon 
the food stored in the seed by the parent plant, but is able lo take 
care of itself, germination is considered over. 

Distribution and Number of Seed Produced — If all the seed produced 
by any one species of plants should take root and live there would be 
no place on the earth for anything else. Why do plants produce so 
many seed? Animals nurture their young and protect them, and those 
species unable to give good protection produce large numbers. Nature 
expects numerous rabbits to be killed every year but there are enough 
born to leave some to continue the species the coming season. So it 
is with plants; they must depend upon numbers to sustain their ,kind. 
Think how many seed are eaten destroyed or otherwise prevented 
from germinating; how many little plantlets, even after they have 
obtained a footing, are browsed off by animals. The higher up in the 
scale of plant life a series stands the better its methods of scat- 
tering seed. One of the families of plants standing highest in the 
plant kingdom is the compositae., sunflowers, thistles, etc. Have 
you ever noticed how many weeds belong to this family, dais- 
ies, dog-fennel, thistle, dandelion, and many others? They are 
weeds because they have the power of scattering the species 
over large areas, the winds can blow their seeds for miles, 
and though most of the old plants are killed in the fields, 
still the few left in the fence corners will produce enough seed and 
succeed in scattering them to such an extent that the whole neighbor- 
hood will become infested. There are other things that help to make 
up a weed, which however, we have not time to mention here. 
IX. HORTICULTURAL METHODS OF PROPAGATION. 

It has been seen why confidence cannot be put in a seed; in other 
words, why it cannot be told what a seed will produce; therefore, the 
horticulturist avoids the use of seeds as far as possible; the florist 
must in many instances use them, where the plants used are annuals 
and where cuttings cannot be taken. For garden vegetables seeds must 
be used; that is why garden varieties run out in a few years and 



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52 LAND TEACHING. 

Others have to be bred up to take their places. It would hardly be too 
broad an assertion to state that any variety of vegetables that has 
been in use ten years is very different from the original first stock. 
To insure propagating the correct variety, where possible, the horti- 
culturist does so by the use of division or the use of a portion of the 
orginal plant. The following are some of the methods used: grafting, 
budding, layering, cutting, stolons, corms, etc. 

Grafting — Tbis is mainly used with trees, and in the propagation of 
fruits. It is the cutting of a scion or short twig, from the tree one 
wishes to grow, and inserting it in a stock, usually of the same species. 
A union takes place and the stock furnishes food for the scion, which, 
grows and bears fruit after its kind. Unions may be expected when 
plants of the same variety are grafted one upon the other; family unite, 
beyond this, however, we cannot hope for union. In grafting it is 
absolutely necessary to have the cambium of the scion in contact with 
the cambium of the stock, and through it a union between the stock 
and the scion may take place; no other part of a plant will unite with 
another. There are numerous kinds of grafts, named after the manner 
of the cutting of the stock of scion or the portion of the plant used. 
Ihere are top-grafts, root-grafts, shield-grafts, etc. 

Budding — This is simply the process of inserting a single bud of a 
chosen variety into a stock. This operation is performed at any time 
that the bark will peel readily. An incision having the shape of a T 
is made in the stock and the bud is cut so that its cambium will be ex- 
posed; it is then inserted under the bark of the stock and securely 
fastened in. If the bud is put in in June a growth is obtained that 
year, whereas if the bud is inserted towards the close of the season 
It remains dormant and grows the following summer. Usually In the 
South the budding is done in June and the following season or during 
the winter a part of the stock above the bud is removed and we have a 
plant budded to a known variety. The bud is placed as near the rgound 
as it is possible for a man to work. 

Cuttings — Some plants may be propagated by cuttings. This method 
Is extensively used — with roses and with several greenhouse plants, 
A cutting may be made from a leaf as in the begonia, or made from 
the wood; it will vary in length from one to several inches. The cut- 
ing is inserted in sharp sand or in the ground; it puts out roots 
and eventually becomes a plant like unto its parent. Willow trees, figs, 
carnation, grapes and many other plants are propagated by cuttings. 
The time to cut, the place from which to take, the shape of the cutting 



LAND TEACHING. 53 

and the methods of planting vary with the various plants and cannot 
be described here. 

Layering — This is the covering with earth of a given portion of 
a plant; this portion then takes root at the different nodes and when 
it is able to support itself it is cut from the parent plant and the 
several new plants separated. This method of propagation is used 
extensively with the scuppernong. 

Stolons — A plant that bends over one of its branches, which branch 
takes root at the tip and becomes a self-sustaining plant, is said to be 
propagated by stolons. Such a plant is the raspberry. The stolon Is 
cut from the old parent and there is a new plant of the given variety 
which can be transplanted as desired. 

Other Methods — Tubers as in the potato; these can be planted whole 
or cut into small portions each having an eye or bud. Bulbs are also 
used to continue a variety. In many instances little bulbs, or bulblets, 
are formed by a plant and these will produce full-grown large bulbs 
in from two to three years or more. Plants producing corms are propa- 
gated much in the saws way as those having bulbs. Other plants pro- 
duce bulblets as the onion, these bulblets are little bulbs produced 
above ground, others are propagated by bulb scales, offsets, crowns 
and various methods. 

The underlying principle of horticultural methods of propagation is 
the taking of some vegetable portion of the plant, and avoiding as far 
as possible the use of seed which cast a doubt upon the character 
of the resulting roduct. 

X. ORCHARD FRUITS. 

After having traced the plant through the various steps In its life, 
and having made a study of each of the principal parts, we are !n a 
position to take up the study of some of the more important type oi 
horticultural fruits. First, however, let us pause a moment and see 
exactly what horticulture is. 

Horticulture comes from "hortus," Latin for garden, and is the art 
of growing fruits, flowers, vegetables and decorative plants. Ths great 
science of agriculture is divided into several parts, one of which is 
horticulture. The latter division is subdivided as follows: Pomology, 
or fruit-growing; Olericulture, or the growing of vegetable:; Green- 
housing and Landscape Gardening. Forestry is a division of agri- 
culture, co-ordinate with horticulture. 



54 LAND TEACHING. 

Tlie most prominent and best known division of horticulture Is 
pomology, or fruit growing. This takes in the production of all the 
orchard fruits, such as the apple, pear, plum, cherry and peach, and 
also the small fruits as blackberries, raspberries and numerous others. 
The word pomology is derived from the botanical name of, possibly 
the mOiSt universal type of fruit; in other words the apple, which 
Dotanically is known as a pome. 

A Pome is a fleshy receptacle or torus, into which is sunk the one 
or more carpels composing the ovary. The best known examples of 
this type of fruit are the apple and the pear. The accompanying il- 
lustration will give a better idea of their parts than a description. 

Apples and pears both belong to the same botanical family and 
genus, but are of different species. The family is the Rosaceae or the 
rose family and the genus Is Pyrus; the species of our common apple, 
Is however, malus, and of the pear communis. The development of the 
pome is easily understood. Ovary is inferior, that is, below the calyx. 
After fertilization the calyx sometimes drops off, but in most cases 
persists or remains on the fruit the torus begins to develop around the 
ovary which usually in the apple and pear is of five divisions. The 
torus eventually becomes fleshy and forms the greater portion of the 
edible fruit. The core, or hard center is the ovary, and in the center 
of this core are found the seeds. Let us now look Into the botany of the 
drupe. 

A Drupe is a fruit in which the outer portion of the ovary becomes 
fleshy and the inner portion becomes hard, forming the pit or stone, 
In which is found the seed. A drupe is usually a one-celled and one- 
seeded fruit, being formed from a one-loculed ovary. Examples are the 
peach, plum, cherry, almond and apricot. 

All of the above mentioned fruits belong to the rose family, as the 
apple, but are of a different genus; their generic name being Prunus. 
Though belonging to the same genus they are all of different species 
and of some, as the "plums, there are numerous species. There are 
probably more apples grown than any other individual fruit, but taken 
collectively one would be like to find the production of drupes greater 
than that of pomes. 

A Drupe! or Drupelet is a small drupe. There are several fruits com- 
posed of drupels, but they are mostly classed with the small fruits 
and will be treated of in the following chapter. The berries will also 
be taken up. 

Other orchard or tree fruits are the orange, lemon, lime, grape-fruit, 






PARTS OF FRUITS. 



56 LAND TEACHING. 

banana, guava and numerous others, but lack of space makes a detailed 
botanical description out of the question. Those mentioned above are 
either torpical or subtropical, some being found only in the torrid 
zone. Another fruit that might be classed amongst the large or orchard 
fruits is the pineapple, though it does not grow on trees, still it is 
large and extensively planted, especially in Florida. It is a multiple 
fruit that Is, a congregation of fruits, as each of its oblong, somewhat 
pointed divisions is a perfect fruit in itself. 

XI. BERRIES AND OTHER FRUITS. 

A Berry is a fruit in which the entire pericarp, excepting the skin. 
Is fleshy, the seeds being sunken in the flesh; examples are the grapes, 
currants, bananas and tomatoes. Horticulturally, however, any small 
fruit as the strawberry, blackberry, raspberry, etc., is spoken of as a 
berry. 

The grapes belong to the family Vitaceae and to the genus VitIs, 
there being several species within the genus, among which are fox 
grapes, muscadines and European grapes. The plants are climbers, 
flowering in the late spring; the leaves are simple, rounded and heart 
shaped; the fruit is a true berry, borne usually in bunchs, though in the 
muscadines it is often a single fruit. Grapes are generally classed 
among the orchard fruits and not looked upon as a small fruit. 

Gooseberries and currants are both berries and considered among 
the small fruits. They belong to the Saxifragaceae family and to the 
genus Ribes; the two, however are of different species. There are 
two types of gooseberries ,the plants are thorny and have only from 
one to three flowers in a cluster. Among the currants there are some 
three or more species and in contrast with the gooseberries the cur- 
rant bushes are not thorny and bear numerous flowers in the cluster. 

The banana is a good example of a true berry only the seed through 
long disuse have become abortive. This plant has been propagated so 
long by su|ckers that the seed are now of no use to it and it has 
stopped producing true ones. One of the best and most easily 
recognized berries is the tomato; though not an orchard fruit, still 
it holds a prominent place in horticulture. 

The brambles, though not true berries are classed among the small 
fruits. The blackberries and dewberries belong to the rose family 
and are all of the genus Rubus. We have the red, black and European 
raspberries, two species of blackberries and two of dewberries. 
All of these fruits may be called aggregate, that is, they consist of 







IL. ^TN-i«,u/ bLT 






VT^ Ctn'ranfi 



KINDS OF BISRRIES. 



sec. 3 



58 LA2iD TEACHING. 

many separate and distinct little fruits; in the case of the brambles 
these little fruits are drupels or drupelets. In the blackberries and 
dewberries the drupels adhere to an enlarged torus, whereas in the 
raspberries the drupels are so insecurely attached to the torus that 
they easily pull away from it and are seen in the market as a 
collection of little fruits hollow in the center, giving rise, in the 
black species, to the name "black cap." 

The strawberry also belongs to the rose family, but the genus is 
Fragaria, fragrant. There are four species of the strawberry, two 
from Europe, one from Chile and one from the United States. The 
species from Chile is commonly supposed to be the parent of most of 
our garden kinds; though the progeny of the others are found in 
many cases. Like the brambles the strawberry is not a true berry 
but an aggregate fruit. The red. juicy, edib'e part is an enlarged 
torus and the real fruit is found in the so-called seeds, which, how- 
ever, are akenes; that is, the simplest form of indehiscent fruit. It 
has been said of the strawberry that: "Doubtless God could have 
made a better fruit but doubtless God never did." 

Horticulture also takes in nut culture, in which class of 
fruits may be found hazel nuts, hickory nuts, pecan nuts, walnuts, 
both English and black, and chestnuts; by some the almond is con- 
sidered a nut but really it is a drupe, like the peach, and the part 
eaten and thought nut-like, corresponds to the pit of the peach or 
plum. Nuts are true fruits; the husk found on them, before frost 
makes It give up its treasure, is the involucre, fleshened and ripened 
up. 

The cranberry is another one of the small fruits, but need only be 
mentioned as it is not cultivated in the South. Huckleberries also 
find a place here, but are not cultivated, those found in the markets 
being the product of the wild plants: this fruit, however, should be 
Improved and cultivated in localities suited to it as it would undoubt- 
edly prove a paying crop. 

In glancing over the last two divisions, one will likely be impressed 
with the number of fruits that belong to the rose family; within its 
ranks we unquestionably find the major part of our fruits as well 
as many of our flowers, especially the king of them all. the rose it- 
self. The vine family is also important in horticulture, not for the 
great variety of fruits but for the one great fruit, the grape; the other 
families, though of less importance, nevertheless, receive our homage, 
as each and every one gives to us of its bounty to make life the more 
enjoyable. 



Part IV. 
SCHOOL GARDENS. 



INTRODUCTION. 

we ail know the general complaint that boys and girls leave the 
farm. We know how serious is the promblem of Interesting young 
folks in farm work and farm things. 

The garden is a part of farm and country life in which children 
are most easily interested. Garden work is the easiest and most 
attractive of farm occupations. 

Recognizing these facts, and that the country school should help 
in the great effort toward holding young people close to the land, 
■ School Gardens" have become a part of the regular school work in 
many sections of the country. 

Great good has already resulted from this movement. Thousands, 
of young folks have become interested in nature, in plant life — in 
country and land — who were never reached in any other way. One of 
the most serious difficulties in the way of greatest success has been 
the lack of teachers and books adapted to leading children along 
this path. 

No such book exists adapted to Southern conditions. Very few 
Southern teachers have had opportunity themselves for learning how 
to teach school gardening, however desirous they might be of helping 
in this great movement. 

We hope to provide the missng instructor of teacher and pupil. 

The illustrations are from photographs of actual work and scenes 
in school gardens under the supervision of Professor Stucky while In 
charge of this work in South Carolina. 

We are sure this new effort will be appreciated, but we hope partic- 
ularly that it will interest the young folks. 

We want our young readers to feel that part of the Ruralist belongs 
to them. The future of this country is in the hands of the young 
people of to-day. V/e hope to have some little influence in shaping 
that future. 



60 LAND TEACHING. 

VALUE OF THE SCHOOL GARDEN. 

In this age of so many studies the addition of any new subject re- 
quires serious thought. 

The proposed subject must prove its right to be. If it does not 
till a place unoccupied by any other subject, it should be denied 
admission into the school course. 

The most casual observer must be aware that there has been a 
great awakening all over the United States, and other countries, 
with regard to the teaching of agriculture. 

School gardens are bursting into bloom and fragrance in many of 
the hitherto waste places of the earth. This is well, for He whose 
first creations centered around a garden, inspired the prophecy 
that the "wilderness shall blossom as a rose." This result is best 
attained by keeping the child close to nature, by awakening in him 
a love for nature so profound that he shall not rest satisfied until he 
becomes a factor in that transformation of the wilderness into the 
blossoming-place of the rose. 

The School Garder.< — A Phase of Nature Study. 

The value of nature study has become so generally recognized that 
It is now a part of the course of study in the best schools in every 
country. Professor C. F. Hodge, in his ideal book, Nature-Study 
and Life, says: "Nature-study is learning those things in nature 
which are best worth knowing, to the end of doing those things 
that make life most worth living." Viewed in the light of this 
definition, the school garden is a most important kind of nature 
study. Its place, moreover, in the course of study is easily assured 
without any squeezing or over-crowding, for it furnishes a center 
for correlation, providing much admirable subject matter for other 
studies. 

The School Garden — Factor in Adaptation to Environment. 

Education in its broadest sense means adaptation to environment. 

School gardens are helpful in bringing about this adaptation, for a 
perfect and complete enviroment cannot take place within the four 
walls of a school room. The child must get outside, he must see, 
and study things in their natural surroundings. Bring as much of 
nature inside as you can, but take the child out to nature as much 
as you can. 



62 LAND TEACHING. 

In the school garden the child sees nature at home — he watches 
the silent wonderful unfolding of her laws. The skilled and tactful 
teacher knows many ways of aiding nature in her teachings — from 
leading the child from the reverential study of nature to nature's 
God. 

The adaptation to the physical or material environment fostered by 
this nature study carried on by means of school gardening is readily 
seen. The child learns to master forces and conditions — he learns 
to work in accordance with established laws. He becomes adapted 
to his surroundings, to the end that he may master it — no 
slave of nature, but the conqueror of nature by possessing her sec- 
rets, and making the soil yield rich harvests. He has learned to 
"dig," hence to the shame of "begging" he will ever be a stranger. 
He is filled with a lasting confidence that in any stress of circum- 
stances he can always make a livelihood from the soil. 

The ethical value of the school garden cannot be over-estimated, 
The child who produces something, who prepares the soil, plants 
tne seed, tends the plant with daily care, and at last harvests the 
results, realizes that he is a co-worker with the higher laws of na- 
ture. 

One who is himiself a producer has greater respect for the pro- 
ductions of others, thus fellow sympathy is developed in the only 
way really open to the child. 

It is claimed that school gardens have transformed slum districts 
In our large cities, morally, physically, and aesthetically. "School 
gardens teach among other things," says Dr. Jerrell, "private care 
for public property, economy, honesty, appreciation, concentration, 
justice, the dignity of labor, and a love for the beauties of nature." 
A habit of industry is by no means an unimportant result, when one 
considers the number of lazy loafers hanging around every street 
corner, shop and depot — a menace truly to the life of the community. 

The economic value of the school garden is easily demonstrated. 
It is this which has materially increased, and in man> cases doubled 
or tripled the amount produced by the same land. The business 
experience which comes as the result of harvesting and disposing 
of the products which are grown is not to be despised. 

School gardens furnish the best possible motor education recognized 
as so indispensable in these days. In rural schools, where other 
forms of natural training are sometimes impossible, it is an indis- 
pensable means of giving expression of thought through action. 



LAND TEACH IN a. 63 

The co-ordination of the senses and motor brain brought about 
by means of school gardening quickens all other lines of school work. 
The intellectual development resulting from the best use of the 
school garden has been established by the comparison of work done 
in other studies by grades which have taken this course and those 
which have not. Those having the advantages of gardening do much 
better work in their other studies than do other children in the 
same school who have not taken the garden work. Quick discrimi- 
nation is one of the pronodnced intellectual results. 

The study of agriculture, the planning, arranging, etc., of a school 
garden, has its important artistic phase. "The problems of the farm 
and farming demand as true and as artistic an expression of well 
ordered thought as do the arts and crafts." 

In ennumerating the advantages of the school garden for the pupils 
c^ our public schools, one of the more evident, and emphatically one of 
the most important, is the physical benefit. More than any other 
phase of school work it promotes the health of the pupils. This 
would be sufficient reason, if there were no other, for making it a 
part of our educational system. Incipient tuberculosis, as well as 
other organic diseases, may be overcome by the safest of all physi- 
cians, nature, in the best of all sanitariums — the garden. 

MAKING THE SCHOOL GARDEN. 

Selection of the Site. 
In selecting a site most schools have no choice, as the areas are 
usually very limited; however, where the teacher has a number of 
types of soils and elevations to select from, it is preferable to choose 
a well-drained, sandy loam soil gently sloping towards the south or 
southeast. 

Preparing and Fertilizing the Land. 

The success of any school garden will depend to a great extent 
upon the thoroughness and skill in the preparation of the soil. If 
the ground is rough and hard, and if a large area is to be worked. 
It should be deeply broken by a man with team and plow. Then it 
may be turned over to the pupils for further preparatioa. if the 
area is small and the number of pupils very large, in order to give 
the pupils some physical exercise, along with the knowledge gained, 
it may be well to have them spade the soil from the beginning. The 



la:sd teaching. 65 

length of the work periods each week will usually decide this ques- 
tion. Too much stress can scarcely be laid upon the preparation of 
the soil. Every clod should be crushed so far as possible, and the 
first eight or ten inches should be left thoroughly pulverized and well 
mixed. 

Fertilizers. 

The chemical improvement of soils embraces the use of fertilizers 
or manures, the application of which depends upon the type of soil 
and the kind of plants to be grown. 

Plants derive an essential part of their food from the soil. This 
Includes all the inorganic mineral elements found in the ash when 
the plant is burned, and a very variable quantity of those elements 
vvhich go off as gas (volatile). 

Knowing that different kinds of plants require a special supply of 
different kinds of plant food, and that most soils are deficient in a 
number of these elements, we should investigate the needs of the 
soil and add those elements in the form of barnyard manure or com- 
pounded fertilizer. While the soil contains several elements of plant 
food, most soils are usually more or less deficient in phosphoric acid 
nitrogen and potash. Due to this common deficiency, almost all com- 
mercial fertilizers are valued according to one or more of these three 
three elements which they contain. 

Fertilizers are usually divided into three main classes, namely, 
those of plant, or animal, and of mineral origin; the two former 
being organic, while the latter is inorganic. Fertilizers of plant 
origin include cotton seed meal, leguminous plants (like peas and 
clovers), or any plant refuse which may be used as a manure. Those 
of animal origin include the residue of slaughter houses, such as dried 
blood, bones, scrap, fish scrap, or any other animal refuse which 
may be had in quantity. Mineral fertilizers are those which are 
mined from the earth, such as phosphates, kainit, and nitrate of soda. 

Commercial fertilizers can be bought and applied separately or in 
combination. It should always be remembered, however, that they 
should never be placed in contact with roots or seeds, but should be 
well mixed with the soil. 

The effects of the different elements in a fertilizer upon plants 
may be mentioned briefly as follows: Nitrogen stimulates the growth 
of the stems and leaves, and too much nitrogen has a tendency 
,to cause the plant to "run to leaves" at expense of flowers and 



66 



LAND TEACHING. 



fruit. Potash builds up the woody tissue, and stimulates the produc- 
tions of plump seeds and fruit, and intensifies the color of the bloom 
Phosphoric acid aids materially in developing the seed. 

For school gardens it is admissable to use commercial fertilizers 
at the rate of 8m or l.WO pounds per acre. Irx addition to this if 
available, the soil should have a good dressing of stable manure 
which is one of the best fertilizers for a garden. The fertilizers 
should be spread broadcast and then be thoroughly worked into the 
soil, with harrow, rake, cultivator or hoe. 

Where the parents take a lively interest in the school garden the 
teacher will often be able to secure a number of loads of stable man- 
use free of expense to the school. 

KIND OF PLANTS TO GROW IN A SCHOOL GARDEN. 

The location and size of the garden, the length of the school ses- 
sion, and the methods of managing the gardens during the summer 
will, to a great extent, decide the type of plants selected for the 
school garden. Generally speaking, early maturing, dwarf or bush- 
form type of plants are preferred for the main part of the garden 
While climbers and tall growing plants may be used for covering 
fences or screening unsightly objects. 

The main reason for growing bushy or dwarf varieties is. that it 
enables the pupil to grow a greater number of plants on a small area, 
thus giving him a larger acquaintance with plant life. Again, dwarf 
varieties are as a rule earlier in their development, which gives the 
pupil the opporttinity of making the harvests and recording the re- 
sults before school closes. As to whether vegetable, flowering 
plants, or field crops should be grown in the school garden will de- 
pend on the knowledge and the need of the pupils to be taught. For 
general educational purposes however, a combination of these 
plants will usually prove to be most satisfactory. Children of the 
lower grades are usually inclined to plant large quantities of seed in 
each row; therefore, plants with large seed should be used for small 
cnildren. Care should be taken also to select plants easy to cultivate, 
simple In structure, and those common to the locality. 

As children advance they may be given a greater variety, and a 
more complete type of plants. 

THE PURCHASE OF SEEDS FOR THE SCHOOL GARDEN. 

,.. .^."™**^^ amount of school garden seed may be had free by the 



LAND TEACHING. 67 

teacher applying to the Congressman of the district in whicih the school 
Is located. However, this source of supply should not be depended 
upon. The teacher should get catalogs from some reliable seedsmen, 
select the desirable varieties, and order the seed in bulk. Then, ot 
course, before planting, small envelopes should be purchased, the 
necessary amount of seed for each small garden be put into these en- 
velopes and the name and variety of plant be plainly written thereon. 
Then when planting time comes the envelopes should be distributed, 
each child being given the necessary amount and the right variety 
for the day's work. 

In each packet should be placed a few more seed than is necessary 
to plant the given row; still the surplus should not be too great, as 
there will be a danger of developing a lack of accuracy and economy 
on the part of the child; for it is the natural inclination of the child to 

plant, in one row, all the seed that have been given him. 

The purchase of seed in small packets is very expensive where a, 

purchase is to be made for a great number of children, unless special 

reduction has been made on these packets for school purposes. 

Teachers may consult the following seedsmen for prices: T. W. 

Wood & Sons, Richmond, Va.; Alexander Seed Co, Augusta., and H. 

G. Hastings & Co., Atlanta, Ga. 

FOURTH GRADE PUPILS' NOTES ON PLANTS OF SINGLE 
GARDEN PLAT. 

Rows Nos. 1-2— English peas, Lightning Excelsior; planted March 
3; ready to use April 28. 

Row No. 3— Irish potato, Irish Cobbler; planted March 3, ready to 
use May 6. 

Row No. 4— Irish potato. Sir Walter Raleigh; planted March 3; 

ready to use May 10. 

Row No 5— Cauoage, Charleston Wakefield; seed sown October 10, 
1907, plants transplanted March 3, 1908; ready to use May 20. 

Row No. &— Bush squash; planted April 2; ready for use May 30. 

Row No 7— Corn, Early Adams, planted March 10; ready for use 

June 8. 
Row No. 8— Beans, Stringless green pod; planted March 17; ready 

to use May 20. 

Row No. 9— Beans, Kidney Wax, planted March 17; ready to use 
May 23. 



LAND TEACHING. 69 

Row No. 10 — Beets, Blood turnip; planted March 3; ready to use 
May 22. 

Row No. 11 — Radish, Rosy Gem; planted March 3, ready to use 
April 12. 

Row No. 12 — Radish, Mixed turnip; planted March 2; ready to use 
-April 15. 

Row No. 13— Dwarf Nasturtiums! planted April 10; bloomed May 20. 

Row No. 14 — Mixed sweet pea; planted March 10; bloomed May 23. 

GROUP AND INDIVIDUAL GARDENS. 

Most experienced teachers in this line of work recommend the 
Individual garden. This is all right providing sufficient time, area 
and implements for culture are provided; but where the supply of 
tools is very limited, the area very large, and only thirty minutes 
per week given for the work, as is the case in some schools, the 
child would not have time to cultivate his garden. At the same time, 
four or five children could do the work satisfactorily. Again group 
gardens enable the children to have larger gardens in which is 
given more room for using standard size implements, which should 
always be used as soon as the child has saffiicient strength to man- 
age them. 

The group garden has some distinct ethical advantages over the 
Individual garden, but it must not be forgotten that the individual 
garden teaches the child better business methods, accuracy in indi- 
viduality, rights of ownership, and respect for the property of others, 
than does the group garden. 

GRADES OF CHILDREN TAKING SCHOOL GARDENING. 

As school gardening is one phase of nature study, it has been 
given, in some of our best schools, from the kindergarten through 
the ninth grade, the work being regulated to suit the ability of each 
grade. 

The children of the kindergarten, of course, can do none of the 
heavy work, such as soil preparation, etc., but they can plant seeds, 
set out plants, water plants, pull up weeds, and have daily oppor- 
tunities of observing plant growth and other important phases of 
nature study. If conditions in any school be such that it is impos- 
sible for all grades to have gardening, it is recommended that the 
work be given to the Fourth, Fifth and Sixth grades. Grades younger 
than these may profitably use the garden for observation work along 



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LAND TEACHING. 71 

With other phases of nature study. Grades older have had enough 
practical experience in the garden to be able to use a text-book on 
the subject with advantage. 

TOOLS FOR THE SCHOOL GARDEN. 

The tools for the school garden should be principally the same 
as those recommended for a home vegetable garden. Light tools 
are recommended for small children, but toy tools are very unsatis- 
factory and should never be relied upon. 

Each individual garden plat should have one rake, one hoe, one 
garden or push plow, one hand trowel, one 50-foot measuring tape, 
one garden line, and a watering pot. By skillful management, on 
the part of the teacher, however, many of these implements may be 
used in common, thus avoiding the expense of buying so many full 
sets. 

These implements can usually be purchased at almost any hard- 
ware store. For the purchase of garden plows teachers may save 
expense by ordering them from B. F. Avery & Co., Atlanta, Ga., as 
this company makes a reduction on implements sold to schools. 

FALL WORK IN THE SCHOOL GARDEN. 

In the South, where the climate is mild, and where many plants 
can stand outdoor conditions during the winter without serious 
injury, school gardening can be successfully carried on during the 
entire year. 

When the period opens in the fall, the soil should be fertilized 
and well prepared, then the pupils may set violets, plant narcissus 
bulbs, and fall onions. Sow such seeds as winter radishes, spinach, 
lettuce and endive. 

These vegetables will endure ordinary frost, and some of them will 
remain in good condition, and ready for use, in the open garden all 
during the winter. 

A little later in the fall, say about the 10th of October, it may be 
well to sow cabbage seed in the open garden, in order to have plants 
for early spring setting. Sweet peas may also be sown, rather 
aeeply and continuous in the drill, for early spring blooming. Fall- 
sown sweet peas may be expected to bloom a month earlier than 
spring-sown peas. 

The fall season being the best time to sow lawn grasses, it Is well 
for the teacher to have the pupils design walks, locate places in 



LAND TEACHING. ' 73 

which to set trees, prepare the soil and sow grass seeds for the 
lawn, thus giving them some practice in landscaping, as well as the 
regular school garden work. 

HOTBEDS AND COLDFRAMES. 

By the proper construction and management of hotbeds and cold- 
frames vegetables and flowers may be successfully grown during the 
entire winter. The sash for covering these frames may often be 
secured, at little or no cost, from some patron of the school, who 
may have old sash removed from a building. For structure and 
management, Professor J. rS. Newman, in his "Southern Gardeners' 
Practical Manual," says: "Excavate to the depth of eight inches an 
area three feet three inches wide by five feet eight inches long." 
(As many of these as is necessary for the school may be made in 
one continuous bed, letting the long way of the sash extend across 
the bed.) "Fill this excavation with fermenting stable manure and 
green cotton seed mixed in equal parts, moisten it and stamp down 
smoothly, moisten the material as it is mixed, and again when put 
into the pit if it seems dry. 

"Construct a close frame of one and one-half inch heart lumber to 
fit over this pit. Have this two feet high at the north end and one 
foot high at the south end, the sides sloping uniformly. The heat 
will be retained better, and the cold air excluded, if soil is banked 
around the lower part of the plank. When the frame is completed 
and placed over the manure, fill in to the depth of four inches with 
sifted dark sandy loam and put on the sash. In three or four days 
remove the sash, sow the seeds, water gently, and replace the sash. 
When the temperature in the hotbed gets above 70 degrees Fahren- 
heit ventilate by placing a block of wood under one end of the sash, 
and during warm days the sash may be removed entirely. Keep the 
surface of the bed moist, but not wet, for such crops as lettuce try 
to let the temperature range between 45 degrees Fahrenheit at night 
and 65 degrees Fahrenheit during the day. It should be remembered 
that a hotbed loses its heat within about six or seven weeks and 
should be refilled where continuous planting is desired. 

"The coldframe is made the same way as the hotbed, excepting 
that rich earth is used instead of the thick layer of manure which 
supplies the heat for the hotbed. If glass is too expensive for tlie 
coldframe, white cloth may be substituted, as a cover, with fair re- 
sults. 



74 LAND TEACHINO. 

"The hotbed is used for growing lettuce, radishes, nasturtiums, 
etc., during the winter, and for starting tender plants such as pep- 
pers, egg plants and tomatoes for early spring setting. 

"The coldframe is used for hardening off rather tender plants 
for setting to the open ground, and for growing rather hardy plants, 
such as winter radishes, lettuce, beats, carrots, endive, etc., during 
the winter and early spring." 

Many other lines of work, such as the study of flower structure, 
window gardening, the construction of hotbeds and coldframes, may 
be begun in the fall and continued throughout the winter. 

WINTER WORK. 

This being a season when weather conditions are usually unfavora- 
ble for outdoor work, the most of the time may be consumed with 
laooratory exercises — the production of plants in hotbeds, cold- 
frames and window boxes. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES. 

While it is essential and best to take the children out of doors to 
do much of their practice work, some of the important principles 
of agriculture do not lend themselves to this method. There is need 
of some laboratory work which can easily be performed in doors, 
during the winter season. 

Much material for these exercises may be collected by the pupils 
free of cost. Some good experimcjnts can be performed with a col- 
lection of empty tin cans, buckets, bottles, wooden boxes, the differ- 
ent types of soils, etc. Then with a small appropriation from the 
school board for the purchase of a few dairy thermometers, test 
tubes, a set of metric weights, an alcohol lamp, some cork bottle 
stoppers, glass tubing, rubber tubing, etc.. the teacher will be able 
to perform more interesting and profitable experiments. 

With the above-mentioned material the teacher can perform labo- 
ratory experiments showing the escape of moisture from plants, that 
the soil contains plant food, the habits of plant growth, that plants 
require air to form roots, the capacity of soils for taking in and 
holding water, the rise of moisture in the soil, the effects of light on 
plants, and the different methods of plant propagation. 

It is essential that the pupil know something of the structure of 
the common plants; that they should know the names and under- 
stand, to some extent, the functions of the essential parts of the 



76 LAND TEACHING. 

common plants. This study may be made in the early fall, or, if the 
Epecimens can be had from window boxes, it may be done in mid- 
winter. Ill 'j-/' ! 

Simple plants should be selected for the lower grades, and only the 
very general parts, such as roots, stems, leaves and flowers studied. 
While technical terms in this work should be avoided as far as pos- 
sible, yet scieniitlc lacts should be adhered to. 

The higher grades should be given a more technical and detailed 
study of the plants, laying special stress on the names and functions 
of the different organs of the flower, such as stamens and pistils, 
anthers and stigmas. 

This study will interest the child and induce him to make a further 
study of the needs and environment of plants. 

THE STUDY OF SEEDS. 

The majority of our garden vegetables, flowering plants, and field 
crops being propagated by means of seeds, it is very important that 
the child should be made as familiar with the names, structure and 
uses of these seeds as may be possible. 

(a) Germinating Seeds — Take a tin plate, two circular pieces of 
cloth, preferably cotton flannel, cut to fit into the plate, and a pane 
of glass large enough to cover the plate. Then count out fifty or a 
hundred of the seeds to be tested, spread them on this cloth, and 
cover them with the other piece of moistened cloth. 

Next place the pane of glass over the plate, to prevent evaporation 
of moisture, and set it aside where it will remain at ordinary living 
room temperature. When these seeds begin to sprout, have the 
ch/ildren to count out those germinated and make such calculations 
as the children are prepared to make. This is one good method of 
teaching percentage, and other practical lessons in arithmetic. 

Many of these plates may be had and let the children make several 
tests as regards: 

Maturity of seeds. Age of Seeds, Size of Seeds, Temperature Re- 
quired for Germination, Moisture Required for Germination, Plant 
Food in Seeds, Position of Seeds — germ end up or down. Color and 
Impurities in seeds, as grass and weed seeds. 

Some of these experiments will give better results if the tests are 
made in pans of moist sand. 

(b) Depth of Planting. — A further study of seeds may be made 
by securing a few big mouthed bottles, or pint jars, and planting seed 



LAND TEACHING. jp, 

at various depths in these bottles filled with moist loamy soil This 
will show the best depth for planting, the habit of root growth (this 
may be seen through the glass), and the depth of soil through which 
the germ of the seed is able to come. 

SPRING WORK. 

School gardening should be begun during the latter part of Febru- 
ary or the first part of March. " 

After the soil has been thoroughly prepared and well fertilized, 
seeds of such plants as spinach, garden peas, endive, and radishes 
may be sown, onion sets may be planted, and cabbage plants either 
purchased or from tue fa.l sowing, may be set. Sweet peas, for 
bloom, may also be planted very early. The sowing of these may not 
be necessary, however, if a sufficient amount was planted the pre- 
sedmg fall. Next in order may be planted the seeds of such plants 
as corn, lettuce, turnips, and Irish potatoes. 

During this time it is well to have seeds of the common flowering 
plants, and some of the more tender garden vegetables, sown in win- 
dow boxes or hot beds where they will be protected from frost, thus 
enabling the school to have flowers and vegetables earlier in the 
spring. 

Where many children are to be instructed in the garden at one 
time, It is well, so far as posisble. to have all the garden plants 
to u^ worked by these children extend in one continuous line, then 
one long garden line may be stretched across the entire number of 
plats and the children or child of each plat be required to lay off the 
row to this line, w^ich makes the garden look more attractive when 
ciie seeds germinate. When the first row has been completed the 
entire line may be moved over ang the second row laid off. and so 
on for any number of rows. Other grades working together may 
have their garden plats parallel with and joining those first laid 
out. and by the time all are given plats the whole area will be in the 
form of a square or a parallelogram; this, of cource, depending upon 
the available ground. 

Each child above the third grade should be required to keep a note 
book and record such facts as dates of planting, methods of planting, 
dates of germination, when ready to harvest, the yield, etc. 

While the commercial or monetary side of school gardening should 
never be stressed, still the children should be taught the best methods 
of procuring the most and best vegetables on the given area, and 



78 LAUD TEACHING. 

should be allowed to sell the garden products to obtain funds for a 
good cause, such as improving the school room or the school grounds. 

COURSE OF STUDY. 

In preparing a course of study for nine or ten grades, it will be 
found a difficult matter to make clear-cut distinctions between the 
work of one grade and that of the next higher. In fact the subejct 
matter of the primary grades is pretty much the same only there is a 
deepening and widening of the subject and more independent work 
on the part of the pupils. In schools where conditions do not favor a 
very close grading, the primary grades can very well be taught to- 
gether. An able and efficient teacher who understands the differences 
In the development of the children can so plan the work that all will 
be interested, while each child is required to do such work as he can do 
successfully. In garden work the children of the third and fourth 
grades can plan and lay off their own garden beds — children of the 
first grade can lay off rows in beds which have already been prepared 
for them. 

It will usually be found not only beneficial, but essential, to have 
the sixth and higher grade use some good elementary text books, 
such as "Agriculture for Beginners," by Burkett, Ginn & Co., New 
York, and "Agriculture for Southern Schools," by Duggar, sold 
by Macmillan Cto., N!ew York. 

FIRST GRADE— FALL WORK. 

1. Seed gathering (a) Flower seeds, (b), garden seeds, (c), tree 
seeds, (d), seeds of wild plants. 

2. Bulb Planting— (a) Soil type, (b), distance, (c), depth . 

3. Making of Window Gardens — ^(a) Boxes sloping towards sun. 
(b) Planting of common plants, such as (1), Geraniums, coleus, as- 
ters, sweet peas, etc. 

4. Fall Gardening. 

WINTER WORK. 

1. Raising vegetables In hotbeds and coldframes for winter use. 

2. Study of soils — clay, sand, loam, etc. 

3. Seed testing. 

(a) Count seeds, (b) Apparatus, (c) Number Germinated, (d) 
Number failed. 

. iSowing seed indoors for spring transplanting. 



80 LAJHD TRAOHINO. 

SPRING WORK. 

1. Soil preparation (a) Plowing or spading, (b) Fertilizing, (c) 
Laying off rows with garden line, (d), Sowing seeds, (e), Thinning, 
(f) Cultivating, (g) Gathering. 

SECOND GRADE— FALL WORK. 

1. Seed gathering continued. 

2. Classification of seeds according to natural methods of distribu- 
tion as by (a) Wind, (b) Animals, (c) Water. 

3. Fall gardening, (a) Some ornamental plants as, (1) Violets), 
(2) Bulbs, (b), Study of bulb structure, (c), Planting a few fall and 
Winter vegetables, such as (1) Lettuce, (2) Spinach. (3) Turnips, (4) 
Radishes, (5) Endive), etc. 

WINTER WORK. 

1. Similar as for first grade, more stress being put on independent 
work of pupils. 

1. Similar to first grade, using a greater variety of plants and 
requiring more individuality in the work. 

THIRD GRADE— FALL WORK. 

1. Seed gathering and classification according to economic value 
of plants. 

2. Fall gardening continued. 

3. Window gardening, the influence of light, heat, and moisture 
on plants studied. 

WINTER WORK. 

1. Raising of vegetables in hotbeds and coldframes — (a) Culture, 
(u) Uses, (c) Value. 

2. Study of soils continued, giving demonstrations of, — (a) Ca|)- 
plllarity, (b) Porosity, (c) Texture. 

3. Seed testing continued. 

4. Sowing seeds in hotbeds, coldframes or window boxes for spring 
transplanting to gardens. 

SPRING WORK. 

1. Gardening continued — (a) Preparation of soil, (b) Fertilizing, 
(c) staking out gardens and drawing plan, (d) Planting seeds, (e) 



LAND TEACHING. 81 

Transplanting plants from Hotbeds (f) Depth and distance of plant- 
ing, (g) Cultivating ,(h) Harvesting and yield. 

FOURTH GRADE— FALL WORK. 

1. Seed gathering. 

2. Classification and methods of storing and preserving seeds. 

3. Fall gardening continued — (a) Testing adaptability of vegeta- 
bles to low temperatures. 

4. Window gardening — (a) Fertilizer experiments with different 
plants, (b) Depth of planting seeds. 

WINTER WORK. 

1. Hotbeds and coldframes (a) Construction, (b) Calcualting di- 
mensions of covers. 

2. Seed testing acording to, — (a) Size, (b) Color, (c) Maturity, 
(d) Age, etc. 

SPRING WORK. 

1. Similar to work of third grade, using a slightly more complex 
type of plants. 

FIFTH GRADE— FALL WORK. 

1. Seed gathering continued— (a) Classification, (b) Identifica- 
tion, (c) Preservative materials for winter storage of seeds. 

2. A collection and the study of a few of the common insects. 

3. Fal 1 gardening continued, as — (a) Preparation of soils and 
Designing beds for bulbs and violets. 

4. Window gardening continued with a comparison of Indoor with 
outdoor grown plants. 

WINTER WORK. 

1. Hotbeds and coldframes continued as, — (a) Management with 
reference to controlling the temperature, (b) Best soil for, (c) Kinds 
of vegetables suited for forcing. 

2. Soil continued — indoor experiments, (a) Drainage, (b) Water 
holding capacity of the different types of soil, (c) Effects of humus 
on texture of soils, (d) Influence of water on temperature of soils. 

3. Seed sowing for spring transplanting continued. 

4. Pot experiments with fertilizers. 

SPRING WORK. 

1. Similar to fourth grade work, more stress being put on the 
keeping of accurate and neat records of all work done. 



82 LAND TEACHING. 

SIXTH GRADE— FALL WORK. 

1. Harvesting and recording yields of all crops found on gardens 
at beginning of session. 

2. Removing of old plants from garden, (a) Sowing seeds so as to 
practice crop rotation, (b) Designing walks and sowing grass seeds 
for lawns. 

3. The collection and study of insects continued. 

4. Pruning begun. 

WINTER WORK. 

1. Study of animals begun, (a) Horses, (1) Draft, (2) Trotting; 
(b) Cattle, (1) Dairy, (2) Beef; (c) Poultry, (1) Eggs, (2) Meat. 

2. Fertilizers, — source of and how valued, (a) Nitrogen, (b) Phos- 
phoric acid, (c). Potash. 

3. Plant propagation by, (a) Bulbs, (b) Corms, (c) Cuttings, (d) 
Grafting, (e) Rootstocks, (f) Seeds, etc. 

SPRING WORK. 

1. Plant structure, (a) Cells, (b). Stems, (c) Roots, (d) Leaves, 
(e) Inflorescence. 

2. Gardens continued, stressing the plants and seed selection for 
improving the varieties. 

SEVENTH GRADE— FALL WORK 

1. Fall gardening continued, stressing the Importance of adding 
humus and plant food to the soil. 

2. Tlie collection and the classification of insects according to 
beneficial and injurious species. 

3. Make landscape plans for the school grounds, (a) Locate places 
for trees, shrubbery, drives, etc. 

4. Pruning continued. 

WINTER WORK. 

L The study of animals continued. 

2. Animal products, as their value, preservation and management. 
(a). Meats, (b) Eggs, (c) Butter, (d) Milk, (e) Cheese, (f) Care of 
dairy products in general. 

3. Grafting, (a) Whip or tongue, and cleft grafting. 

4. Budding, (a) Shield, and annular budding. 

5. Cuttings, (a) Hard wood, soft wood and leaf cuttings. 



LAND TEACHINQ. 83 

6. Commercial fertilizers continued, (a) Composition and value. 

7. Indoor seed sowing for spring transplanting continued. 

SPRING WORK. 

1. Greneral classification for economic plants, (a) Cereals, (b) 
Legumes, (c) Grasses, (e) Roots, (f) Fiber plants, (g) Oil plants, 

etc. 

2. Preparation and application of insecticides and fungicides, (a) 
Bordeaux mixture, (b) Kerosene emulsion, (c) Paris green, etc. 

3. Spring gardening continued, requiring tbe pupils to grow a 
more complex type of plants. 

EIGHTH GRADE— FALL WORK. 

1. Landscape plans for school continued. 

2. Seed selection with introducmtion to plant breeding in con- 
nection with fall gardening. 

3. Study of insects continued. 

4. Study of the plant continued, (a) Composition, (b) Structure, 
(c) Physiology, (d) Heredity, (e) Environment, (f) Pollination, (g) 
Hybrid, (h) Cross, etc. 

WINTER WORK. 

1. Spring gardening continued. In this, some special crop of the 
locality should be grown and studied, (a) Variety tests, (b) Soil 
and climatic influences. 

This work should be done with the constant aim in view of improv- 
ing the plants by systematic methods of plant breeding. 

NINTH GRADE— FALL WORK 

In this grade more elective work may he allowed, and more stress 
placed on those subjects best adapted and most needed to meet the 
local conditions and necessities of the school and community. 

WINTER WORK. 

More laboratory work should be planned and performed by the 
students, which will prepare them for doing more effective spring 
work in the gardens. 



84 LAND TEACHINO. 

SPRING WORK. 

The study of individual crops, varieties of plants, the soil, and cli- 
matic conditions should be continued, stressing those points which 
are most upbuilding to the pupils and to the community in which the 
school Is located. 

WORKS OF REFERENCE. 

Teachers should apply to the Agricultural Experiment Station and 
ask that the school receive copies of all the bulletins issued by the 
station. They should also write to the United States Department of 
Agriculture, Washington, D. C, for the following: 

1. List of bulletins and circulars for free distribution, Division of 
Publications, Circular No. 2, 

2. 'Farmer's Bulletin, Subject Index, Division of Publications, Circu- 
lar 4. 

3. Bulletin No. 160, School Gardens, OflBce of Experiment Stations. 

4. Bulletin No. 186, Exercises in Elementary Agricu'ture, Office of 
Experiment Stations. 

Books for reference: 

1. Hemenway, H. D.. "How to Make School Gardens," Doubleday, 
Page & Co., New York. 

3. Hodge, C. E., "Nature Stury and Life." Ginn & Co., New York. 

4. Newman, J. S., "The Southern Gardeners' Practical Manual." 
ihis Is the best and most indispensable reference book on growing 
vegetables and small fruits under southern conditions. It may be ob- 
tained from Professor J. S. Newman, Clemson College, S. C. 



Part V. 

PLANNING AND CARE OF 
SCHOOL GROUNDS. 



Introduction. 



It Is in the school house with its surrounding grounds that the 
foundation of America's future greatness is laid. The sensitive chil- 
dren, some of them leaving home with eagerness to enter this new 
world, others in fear and trembling of the unknown difficulties 
that lie within the school gate, are the material of which the teacher 
must make future citizens. During this plastic state of childhood 
Impressions are easily made and ideas quickly formed either for bet- 
ter or for worse. It is easier to favorably impress, or otherwise, the 
seeking mind of the child than it is to erase the impressions after 
they have been made. It is plainly the duty of the teacher, the Board 
and the parents, to influence the rising generation to higher ideals, 
higher standards of honesty, higher desires for an education, a great- 
er love for beauty and nature so that eventually the ideal American 
citizen shall be formed. 

It is too often the case that some progressive young teacher with 
a large stock of energy and the desire to better her or his pupils. 
Is held back by an unsympathetic and unresponsive Board or parent. 

In many sections it is necessary to start the planning of the school 
grounds by a systematic canvass of the community, and stirring the 
public opinion in favor of the betterment of the school. In many 
localities the educating of the public is almost as important as that 
of the child and is attended by many more difficulties. Even though 
the teacher does not think it possible to so stir the minds of the 
adults in the community as to immediately obtain the desired funds 
and cooperation, he or she should not be deterred from starting the 
campaign. There should exist a bond between all rural school teach- 



LAND TEACHING. 87 

ers so that one might continue the well thought out plans of the 
other and carry to success a project which should be desired by all 
alike. 

The expense attendant upon the decorating of the school grounds, 
though very little in itself, may deter many Boards from taking hold 
of the work as they should. If, however, the one in direct charge 
of the school building and its surroundings makes efforts to beautify 
and improve them, they will doubtless find that within the course 
of a few years some money will be found available for the purchas- 
ing of plants and the care of the property. Many localities will not 
believe a thing until they see it, and if through the hard work of 
the instructor the forbidding and uncongenial grounds surrounding 
a district school gradually take on a charactr of beauty and refine- 
ment, there will be some neighbor or some member of the Board 
sure to notice the change and be willing to start a campaign in 
favor of the "School Beautiful." There is assuredly some person in 
nearly every neighborhood who understands the influence that trees 
and flowers, well kept lawn and gravel paths exert upon the up-coming 
generation of youths, who will be able to realize that as the expendi- 
tures for the school increase, those for jails, poor-houses, and other 
buildings of like character decrease. 

There is nothing that so appeals to the developing child as the beauties 
of nature. It is the teachers duty to keep children who begin 
ischool with joy and gladness in that condition throughout their 
school career, so that they may carry into the world a remembrance 
of happy school days and be better men and women for the same. 
Likewise, it is also incumbent upon the teacher to so handle the 
child who first comes to him or her with fear and dread that such 
feelings shall be removed, and the pupil continue in school with joy 
and gladness, so that the little fearful youngster may eventually 
go out into the world and fill his or her place to the best advan- 
tage of the country and community. There is nothing that will 
so add to the ease of teaching, to the increase of learning, and the 
joy of living as a well planned and beautifully kept school ground and 
a comfortable and attractive school house. 

THE SCHOOL HOUSE. 

Of necessity the school house must be the central object within 
the school grounds. Figure 1 shows a type of country school that has 
been and is too often met with within our rural district. A more 



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7} 

m 

< 

I 

O 
o 
X 
o 

CO 



LAND TEACHING. 89 

forbidding building, a more uncongenial place in which to study and 
Improve could hardly be picked out. The school house in a great 
measure gauges the prosperity and the intellectuality of the com- 
munity. A building in which the windows are broken and dilapi- 
dated, the sides of which are open to wind and rain, of which the 
floors are full of holes and made of undressed boards, might be a 
well ventilated building but could scarcely be considered an up-to- 
date school house. One of the first points to be desired in a school 
building is simplicity. Avoid all "jim crack" types of architecture 
and make the building appear in keeping with the surroundings. If 
an opinion upon the subject had to be given it would probably not be 
incorrect to state that the school house should be the best building in 
the community. The money, however, should not be put into fancy 
gables, odd shaped windows, and poorly constructed rooms, but should 
be saved and used for good heating, comfortable desks and chairs, 
solid tables and good equipment in all lines. It should be expended 
to secure good ventilation, to keep the building painted and in good 
repair. 

Figures 2 and 3 show the types of school houses that we are glad 
to say are rapidly taking the place of the former kind. Figure 2 is a 
particularly good type of rural school as it is not expensive and is 
pretty, being substantially built and serving all the purposes of a 
school house. Figure 3 also is a good type though possibly not so 
attractive in appearance as Figure 2. In planning the house care 
should be taken to give good light to all the recitation rooms, as the 
eyes of the children must be protected for they are to be used exten- 
sively if an education is to be obtained. 

Ventilation is also an important factor. Children can not study 
In the heavy atmosphere of a poorly ventilated room; but in 
procuring fresh air we must be careful not to make the room too 
cool, for though poor work is done in vitiated air poor work is also 
done when the room is too cold or too hot. 

GENERAL PLAN FOR SCHOOL GROUNDS. 

It is too often the case that a rural school is placed in a most 
forbidding situation, and the grounds are entirely too small for the 
healthly, romping exercise of the growing boys and girls. Baseball 
and football cannot be played on a small lot, and school without 
sports is almost no school at all. It has often been a riddle why 
school houses in the county were not surrounded with ample ground. 
It can be understood in the city where land is very valuable and 
sec. 4 



90 LAND TEACHINO. 

is sold by the foot, but why the district school should be built in 
some old forsaken corner or on top of some cold, drear hill with prac- 
tically no ground surrounding it, is hard to understand. Land in the 
country is comparatively cheap and no better use can be made of it 
than to turn it over to the future farmers for their enjoyment while 
they are young. 

The rural school teacher always has a great opportunity of plant- 
ing and improving the school grounds. It is almost safe to say 
that the mere request will ohtain for the school sufficient ground for 
all purposes. Therefore, let us avoid as far as possible the cramping 
of the school ground, but expand them so that there will be room 
for both work and play. The school house must of course be the cen- 
tral figure. The exact position that it should hold must be determined 
by the shape of the lot. Where practical it is advisable to move the 
school house as far back from the road as possible, putting most 
of the play ground in front, also removing the building from the 
dust and dirt of the highway and the children from the distraction of 
the ever-passing teams and people. It is also well to separate the yard 
into divisions — one for the boys and one for the girls. This may be 
done in several ways, either by the use of hedges, walks, strips of 
grass, or any other way that would make a good distinguishing 
mark, for invariably the boys and girls are slipping back and forth 
across the line. The boundary of the school grounds may be well 
marked with shrubs, trees or even hedges. The out-buildings should 
also be screened with plants. Flowers are not always desirable or 
essential in the landscaping of the school. Often they are more of a 
detriment Chan otherwise, but out of the way corners which are little 
used or frequented may be turned into flower beds. The walks on the 
school grounds should be straight, going directly from one point to 
another and should follow the paths made by the pupils going to 
and from school or from one frequented point to another on the 
Bcnool ground. Generally speaking, it is not advisable to have too 
much planting; too many fancy bushes and trees; too many flowers 
around the school that often get in the way and are seriously injured 
do not tend to form a love for them in the breast of the boys, but 
rather a dislike. In the general planning of the school ground, every- 
thing must be done to bring the children to a realization of the beau- 
ties and pleasures attendant upon a knowledge of plant life or by 
being surrounded with plants. Likewise everything must be avoided 
that will tend to raise a dislike or repugnance for nature and her 
trees and flowers. 



LAND TEACHING. 91 

Many have found trouble in making the boys, particularly, of a 
school protect and iook after the plants about the building. One can 
almost fancy that where such troubles happen there were many plants 
In the way of the games and with the placard on them "Do not touch," 
or "Do not pull," or that some boys have been punished for accidentally 
falling over a sapling and injuring it. Such accidents happen, and 
Instead of punishment it would be far better to make pupils repair 
the damage done, and nurse the plant to health, rather than give them 
demerits or make them learn lines of poetry because the plant has 
been injured. 

The uses, kinds, care and ways for planting of the different mater- 
ials that may be used in landscaping of the school will be discussed 
In detail under the following heads: 

I. TREES. 

Around every school house there should be some trees. If you are 
unfortunate in having no native forest trees in the school yard it be- 
comes necessary to plant them. A great many schools follow the 
custom of having an arbor day and numerous trees are set out and 
protected by stakes and in other ways. The small trees usually are 
fallen over, torn up or broken down during the school year or die 
from neglect during the summer, and at the next arbor day they all 
have to be replanted. It would be far better instead of planting a 
lot of small saplings to plant one or two trees of good size. These 
should have good, substantial root systems and be set well into the 
ground so that they could take care of themselves and within a few 
years begin to lend their shade and beauty to the school grounds. 

Mr. J. H. Prost, City Forester of Chicago, gives the following reasons 
for planting trees: 

"1. Trees are beautiful in form and color, inspiring a constant 
appreciation of nature. 

"2. Trees enhance the beauty of architecture. 

"3. Trees create sentiment, love of country. State, city and home. 

"4. Trees have an educational influence upon citizens of all ages, 
especially children, 

"5. Trees encourage outdoor life. 
"6. Trees purify the air. 



LAND TEACHING. 93 

"7. Trees cool the air in summer and radiate warmth in winter. 

"8. Trees improve climate, conserve soil and moisture. 

"9. Trees furnish resting place and shelter for birds. 

"10. Trees increase the value of real estate. 

"11. Trees protect the pavement from the heat of the sun. 

"12. Trees counteract adverse conditions of city life." 

All of these reasons are not applicable to the rural school but many 
of them are, Nos. 3, 4, 5, 9 and 10 especially. As a rule trees should 
be grouped instead of planted in rows. It might be preferable to 
bound the property with trees, or better yet to plant groups in each 
corner of the yard and possibly one or two groups near the building. 
Specimen trees, that is, those planted alone, are not very desirable in 
the ordinary school yard, but are more often used upon a College 
campus and in parks. Be careful in planting trees near the building 
not to interfere with the light, but so arrange them that they do 
not come in front of the windows, except upon the sunny side of the 
building where their shade is desirable. Also in using trees about 
the school do not put them in the center of the playground, as they 
obstruct the games of baseball, basket ball or football. A large shel- 
tering tree, however, in the corner makes a fine place for the spinning 
of tops, the shooting of marbles,, or the pitching of quoits. 

It may be of advantage just here to say something of the evergreens. 
A few of these trees judiciously used in the school yard will lend 
color during the winter months, but too many of them give a dark, 
gloomy appearance to the property that is not advantageous to the 
pupils. Some of the best trees for use in our section for planting 
around the school are as follows: 

KINDS OF TREES RECOMMENDED. 

Norway Maple Acer Platanoides 

Red Maple a. rubrum 

Locust Robina preudacacia 

China-berry Melia Azedarach 

Japanese Varnish tree Herculia platanfolia 

Sweet-gum Liguidambar Styraceflua 

White Oak Quercus alba 

Live oak Q- Virens 

Sycamore Platanus occidentalis 

Carolina Poplar Poplar Carolin 

Tulip tree, erroneously called poplar Tiriodendron tulipifesa 

•Large Flowered Magnolia Magnolia graindiflora 



94 LAND TEACHJNO. 

•Juniper or Red Cedar Juniperus Virginiana 

•Deodara Cedar Cedrus deodara 

American Elm Vlmus Americana 

•Evergreen. 

These trees, all except the evergreens, should be transplanted during 
the fall and winter. It is advisable to take them up with as many 
roots as possible and with as large a trunk as can conveniently be 
handled. The hole should be dug and some soft dirt, well mixed 
with decomposed barn-yard litter, should be placed in the bottom. 
The tree should then be planted and have the dirt well stamped down, 
around the roots. The top should be pruned back to correspond with 
the loss of root area. Do not fear cutting back the top of a transplanted 
tree too much. As a rule it is hard to get people to prune a newly 
planted tree sufficiently; they usually leave too many branches upon 
It and it makes a poor and sickly growth the following year. 

The care of forest trees is not of great importance. There is noth- 
ing much to do to them except to remove limbs that have been 
uroken by storms, apply white lead to the splits, cracks and all 
injured or broken places in the bark. The tree in the school yard re- 
quires very little attention after it has become securely established. 
Evergreens should be transplanted just as the new growth is begin- 
ning in the spring. .Pruning is also necessary when transplanting them; 
however, they are not usually cut back so much as a deciduous tree. 
Their after care amounts to very little unless some accident should 
happen. 

II. SHRUBS. 

Shrubs may be used to great advantage around the school. They are 
Bmall, and, therefore, do not cut off the view. They are inexpensive, 
grow rapidly and give good effects in a short time. The places in 
which they may be used are innumerable. The division line between 
the boys' and girls' playground may be formed by clumps of shrubs, 
and they should be used to screen out-buildings on the school ground; 
they serve a great purpose in bringing the school house, itself, in 
contact with the ground; that is, by being planted around the base^ 
of the building. They may be grown under the trees, in the corners 
of the yard, may be used to hide unsightly fences, to take the places 
of trees where these would be too high, and if desirable the yard may 
be bounded by shrubs and hedges. Care should be taken not to plant 
ehrubs where they are apt to be run over or brushed against as they 
are small and offer but little resistance to the fierce rush of boys after 



LAND TEACHING. 95 

the football or in some other game. A judicious selection of shrubs 
will give a wealth of beauty and bloom from the early spring through, 
the summer into the fall. These plants are so numerous that it seems 
a hopeless task to mention those that should be used. Some of those 
that grow to advantage are as follows: Dog-wood, Japanese quince, 
Hydrangea, mock-orange, the sumach, elder, the bridswreath, spiraea, 
Thunbergs spiraea, Van Houtt's spiraea, lilacs, Japanese snow-balls,, 
the various roses, the banana shrub, the gardenia or cape jasmine, 
the tea-olive, California privet, Euonymus and others. Some of these 
are grown mainly for their flowers, others for their foliage, and some 
such as the California privet and the Euonymus are mainly used as 
hedge plants. There are numerous others which are evergreen such" 
as the arbor vitae, biotas, and other coniferous ones, which, however 
do not do so well in southern sections, but may be used to advantage 
in the northern parts of Dixie land. Shrubs, as a rule, need very little 
care and live from year to year. If, however, some of them become 
infected with plant lice or insects it may become necessary to spray. 
The Japanese quince is quite a host for the San Jose scale, and, there- 
fore, in fruit growing sections it might not be advisable to use this 
Bhrub around school houses. 

These plants had best be put in groups and not singly. The great- 
est use for the shrubs will probably be found as screens around out- 
buildings and around the base of the house, and possibly along the 
fence. In setting out these plants, it is advisable to have the ground 
in fairly good tilth, and where it can be obtained, stable litter can be 
worked to in good advantage. The pruning of shrubs at setting out 
time is like that of the trees. After that the bushes and the trees are 
only pruned to keep them within bounds. 

LIST OF SHRUBS. 

Dog-wood Cornus Florida 

Japanese Quince Cydonia Japonico 

Hydrangea Hydrangea 

Mock-orange Philadelphus 

Sumach Rhus Glabra 

Elder Sambucus Canadensis 

Bridalwreath Spiraea Spiraea 

Thunbergs Spiraea Spiraea 

Van Houtt's Spiraea Spiraea 

Lilac Syringa vulgaris 



96 LAND TEACniNO. 

Japanese Snow-Ball Vibumum Tomentosum 

Roses Rosa 

♦Banana Shrub Magnolia Fuscata 

•Gardenia or Cape Jasmine Oardcnia Jaamenoides 

•Tea Olive Olea fragrans 

•California Privet Ligastrum Japonicum 

•Euonymous Euonymus Japonicus 

III— VINES. 

There are no other plants which will make a building appear 
more a part of the landscape than vines. They cover up unsightly ob- 
jects, clothing them with beautiful blooms and shimmering foliage. 
If the school house is of brick, stone or concrete, it may be completely 
covered with vines; if on the other hand, as most of them are, the 
building is of wood there are some few of the deciduous flowering 
vines that may be used to advantage. 

Nothing so much obliterates the objectionable character of a high 
board fence or unsightly object as vines. It is also in good taste 
and makes them more a part of the surrounding shrubbery and trees. 
As a rule, the care of vines is simple; they may be planted and allowed 
to grow as they will, except where they interfere with the windows; 
then they should be pruned back. If it should happen that in some 
out of the way corner there is a dead or dying stump of unnecessary 
height, such an object makes a good support for a vine. Those that 
may be used to advantage around the school building are as follows: 
Virginia creeper, the trumpet creeper, the wistaria, the ivy, the scup- 
pernong and the honeysuckle. 

The Virginia creeper, (ampelopsis quinquifolia) is especially well 
adapted to stone and brick structures. It also loses its leaves dur- 
ing the winter, and in that way cleans out all birds' nests and other 
litter that accumulates during the growing season. It is a fairly 
good grower. 

The trumpet creeper (Tuoma radicans), one of our local runners, 
may be used to cover fences or stumps and even be trained up by the 
side of a wooden house. It has very pretty trumpet shaped flowers 
during the season and forms a large pod about the end of the 
summer. Incidentally it is a good vine to study botanically as it 
has well defined aerial roots. 

The wistaria (wistaria frutescens and chinensis) is the king of 
•Evergreen. 



98 LAA^Z) TEACHING. 

our flowering vines for early in the spring it gives a wealth of large 
purple blossoms that beautfy the most drear of landscapes, and tell 
of the coming of the glories of spring and summer. This vine Is 
well adapted to the south; both varieties, the white and purple make 
aqually good growth. It may be used to advantage over fences, 
stumps and all wooden structures, making a most beautiful protec- 
tion for the various out-houses around the school grounds. Its foliage 
Is also pretty and of a pleasing shade of green. 

The ivy (Hedera helix), which is evergreen, is a very slow grower, 
and is adapted only to covernig stumps and stone or brick structures. 

The scuppernong (Vltis rotundifolia), may be used to advantage 
over some of the outhouses or trained along the fences. 

The honey-suckle (sonicera japonica and sempervirens), is about 
the easiest of any to grow and fills the atmosphere with sweetness 
when In bloom. It may be well used along wire fences, over old 
Btumps, on trees, and even about the house and buildings. 

When using vines avoid building a trellis for them and making 
them prominent in the landscape; they should not be grown as 
specimen plants, but should be used to cover things that are un- 
Blghtly. 

IV— FLOWERS. 

Flowers are divided into two classes, the perennials and the an- 
nuals. As a rule, flowers are not desirable around the school ground 
as they are usually in the way. However, if there should be a nook, 
comer, or strip along the fence in some out of the way place 
where pupijs go little, but which may be seen from some of the 
windows of the school house, it may be advisable to plant flowers 
there. They should, however, be segregated and not scattered all 
over the premises. Where the ball is apt to get into the flower bed 
or some boy is likely to fall over a tiny plant and be punished for the 
offense which was accidental, there grows a tendency to dislike such 
useless objects instead of a love for the beauties of nature. Where a 
school garden is cultivated, flowers can be grown to advantage, but 
In the genera] landscaping of the school ground it is best to confine 
flowers to little frequented spots. 

The perennials are those that grow from year to year without 
replanting. Among them may be mentioned peonies, phlox, holly- 
hock, English daisy, cannas, poppies, violets, lilies, dahlias, narcissus, 
and some of the pinks. The perennials may well be banked against 



LAND TEAOHINQ. 99 

the green of the shrubbery along the back fence or in some like 
place. I 

The annuals, consisting af nasturtiums, sweet peas, bachelor's 
button, sun flower, salvia, morning glory, gourd vines, and numerous 
other old-fashioned plants are dear to the heart of the true South- 
erner. They always speak of the colonial gardens the only type 
of landscape architecture that the South has given to the world, and 
which type is so fast disappearing from sunny Dixie. 

LIST OF FLOWERS. 
Perennials. 

Peony iPaeonia 

Phlox Phlox 

Hollyhock Althaea rosea 

Canna Canna 

Poppies Paparer 

Violet Viola 

Lilies Lilium 

Dahlias Dahlia variabilis 

Narcissus Narcissus 

Pinks Dianthus plumarius and others 

Annuals. 

Nasturtiums Troparolum 

Sweet Peas Lathyrus adoratus 

Bachelor's button Centanrea cyannus 

Sun flower Helianthus 

Salvia Salvia splendens 

Morning Glory , '. . .Ipomoea 

Gourd Vines Gayenaria 

Little need be said concerning the care of flowers for 'practically 
every school teacher is more or less interested in these plants. 
They hold in the family of decorative plants much the same position 
as the butterfly does among the insects. When a beginner first starts 
a collection of insects the butterflies make up the greatest portion 
of it because their flashing colors and large expanse of beautiful 
wings are attractive to the uninitiated: so also, when one begins to 
think of improving the grounds, flowers come in immediately for a 
large share of attention because they too give color to the landscape, 



100 LAND TEACHING. 

and the shrubbery and foliage are thought of later as they appeal 
to the more educated sense of beauty. 

V— LAWNS AND PLAYGROUNDS. 

There is quite a diversity of opinion as to the best type of play- 
ground for the school; whether it should be of grass, sand or 
gravel is a question that has bothered many school improvers. Each 
method has its advantages and disadvantages. The lawns will be- 
come trodden down by the tramp of many joyful feet, yet it is more 
beautiful than the bare playground of sand or cinders. The grass 
will become wet and ocasionally the children will have to stay off 
of it for days at a time or suffer from colds and wet feet. If a play 
ground is of clay and sand it may become muddy, and then the 
work of the janitor and the teacher is increased as unthinking feet 
track mud into the school room. If it is possible the playground may 
be of sand and gravel, that is probably the best type, especially for 
the boys' yard. These playgrounds, whether of grass or some other 
material, must be unobstructed. There must be room in them for 
games. They should not be cramped, for the spirits of youth need 
space in which to expand. A strip of grass may be grown along the 
fence or between the two playgrounds to serve as a dividing line, 
and then shrubs may be planted in this grass. 

Some partjj of the grounds where the boys or girls find enjoyment 
in sitting under the trees or lolling about may well be sodded down. 
Should the main playground be at the side of the building, then it 
might be well to have a lawn in front. On the other hand, should 
the playground be in front, the lawn should be placed at the back. 
Beaten and trampled down grass is not beautiful; it must be soft 
and green and deep and thick to add its full share of beauty to the 
landscape. Whether grass should be used at all, or whether it 
should compose the main part of the picture depends entirely upon 
circumstances. If the children are small and do not seem to enjoy 
rough games, it might be well to have the whole yard in a lawn, but 
as the pupils iencrase in size and age and the boys become more rough 
ana find vent for energy in all kinds of manly sports, the poor grass 
stands but littje show and it may well be replaced by some hard ma- 
terial as sand or gravel. 

In making a lawn, we should first be careful to have the surface 
smooth. It is considered good policy to cultivate some fertilizer-giving 
crop, as peas, vetch or other legume upon the area to be grassed. 



102 LAND TEACHINQ. 

This crop should then De turned under, and if obtainable, a good coat- 
Ing of barn-yard litter may be turned under with it. This litter, how- 
ever is apt to introduce weeds into the lawn, and if that much dreaded 
and deservedly condemned plant, "nut grass," should get into the 
lawn it is very, very hard to eradicate. After the surface has been 
well worked, levelled down, and rolled and rolled again, then a spike- 
tooth harrow or some other like implement of the farm may be run 
across the area to roughen it, and either in the fall or early spring 
the grass seed should be sown. 

For localities in north middle Georgia and Alabama there seems to 
be no finer turf-making grass than the Kentucky Blue Grass, and it 
Is well to sod the whole lawn to this. A mixture may be used if de- 
sired, but whatever is put on, do not be skimpey with the seed. If 
Blue grass alone is sown, 3 to 4 bushels should be used to the acre. 
After the first year, the lawn mower should be kept running; of 
course, it is impracticable to mow a school lawn as often as should 
be, but lawns that are cut every forty-eight hours are very superior to 
those gone over once in a week or two. 

Below northern Georgia and Alabama the old reliable Bermuda 
grass must be depended upon. After the ground Is put in good con- 
dition and levelled off, either in the fall or early spring the under- 
ground root stocks of Bermuda grass may be planted in rows two 
to two and one-half feet apart. If the ground Is rich and the season 
good, with plenty of water, by the end of the year a fairly good lawn 
will have been secured. Bermuda will stand the rought feet, the 
tramping and ill uses probably better than any grass we have. It 
may be considered a weed in the field, but it is preeminently the lawn 
grass of the south. It also should be cut frequently to make it 
thicken up and form a good sod. Small areas of lawns, where money 
Is available, may be sodded; that is, strips of sod taken from some 
old pasture: they should be cut about a foot wide and in long 
strips, as it is easy to roll them up and pile them on a wagon 
and then when laying them, they are easy to unroll again. The 
ground where the sod is laid should be roughed up to receive the 
roots: the sod should then be placed upon it and thoroughly tamped 
down and rolled. When possible, it is well to give it a good 
drenching as soon as it is planted. This latter method is more 
expensive, but is tae quickest way of getting grass. Where it is 
desired to make playgrounds of gravel and sand in many sections 
It is only necessary to grub up the weeds and remove the stumps 



LAND TEACHING. 103 

and you have a fine sand-clay surface that niakes an excellent pleas- 
ure yard. If it is desirable to work gravel into the surface and 
there is a creek near by from which the gravel can be easily pro- 
cured, it would be well to roughen up the soil, haul the gravel upon 
It, and thorougu.y scatter it then roll it in. For the average school 
probably tbe most serviceable and cheapest playground is the one 
of sand and clay, the natural surface of the earth. 

VI— GENERAL CARE OF GROUNDS. 

Before planting a tree or shrub, it would be well for the teacher 
to draw a plan on paper. This plan should be handed down from 
teacher to teacher, so that even though the teaching force of the 
school was changed frequently, the plan would remain and eventually 
be worked out. All can not be done at one time. It is a process of 
evolution, and every teacher should start the wheel to rolling and 
let each succeeding one give it another push in the desired direction 
Finally all the school yards in our sunny land would be beautified 
with roses, wrapped with the purple and white of wistaria, and 
be sweet with the odors of many flowering shrubs and beautiful 
Plants peculiar to our climate and southern homes. 

After the plan is made and we are working to its ultimate com- 
pletion, we will find that the plants which are first set out will 
need more or less care, and it is well to select those for planting 
around the school that are hard and tough. The trees should be 
kept free from nails, horse shoes, broken limbs and other objec- 
tionable objects. If a storm of sleet should come along and break 
the topmost boughs, tney should be cut out, and where the wound 
is more than two inches in diameter a coat of good white lead paint 
should be applied to protect it from fungi and insects. In pruning 
or cutting a tree do not leave long unsightly stumps but cut the 
branches as close to the trunk as possible, and in a few years the 
wound will be unnoticed. Should a stub be left, it decays and finally 
eats to the heart of the plant and kills it. 

The Shrubs need only to have the long objectionable branches cut 
away, or should they grow too tall, it may become necessary to 
prune them back within bounds, especially those around the house: 
otherwise their care is small unless it becomes necessary to make 
a light application of chemical fertilizer or a mulch of barn-yard lit- 
ter now and then. 

The Vines need only slight pruning to keep them also within the 
desired bounds. 



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PLAN FOR SCHOOL. GROUNDS. 



LA^D TEACHING. 105 

Flowers, especially the perennials, should be mulched with barn- 
yard litter in the fall to feed and protect them from the cold of 
winter. Many of these die down to the ground and the old rotted 
remains should be removed and burned. They will come up again 
in the spring after the ground has been worked around them, and 
flower, lending their beauty to the landscape. The annuals have to be 
planted every year. Many of them are small growing plants, pro- 
ducing most beautiful blooms. The flower beds should be well fer- 
tilized and if the plants appear not to be doing well, a small 
application of quckly available food, as nitrate of soda, or some chem- 
ical fertilizer may be made. This should be worked into the ground 
with a hand rake or small hoe. Flower beds, of course, will need 
weeding and it is strange how many papers, letters and old exercises 
will collect in these beds and under the shrubs. These, of necessity, 
will have to be picked up, removed and destroyed. Where pupils 
take pride in their school and surroundings the trash is reduced to 
a minimum, but where the rules prohibit the throwing of paper and 
the like upon the ground, it is strange how much material will 
collect under the bushes. 

We must control the pupils, we must improve the school through 
the love of the child, we must appeal to his pride and his love of 
nature. We can not force cleanliness and enjoyment of natural 
beauties upon. The best care of the school property lies in producing 
the correct attitude in the pupils toward the school. 

The lawns should be frequently cut and where possible watered at 
least once a week. If they become yellow and seem to be doing poorly, 
then light applications of nitrate of soda should be made, and if they 
are so large that they can not be watered, we will have to wait for 
the rains to carry down the food, but if they should be small and 
water Is available for applications, after the nitrate of soda is 
applied, water may be given. This, however, will seldom apply to 
any except city schools, as in the country we have to depend upon 
nature for our water supply. The greatest care of the grounds 
lies in keeping them clean. This may often be done by the janitor, 
but when it is passible it should be done by the pupils, for if they 
prevent or lessen the making of trash there will be but little to 
clean up. 

The planting of the annuals may be done by classes or individuals. 
This, however, often brings up class and individual troubles, as in 
competition, the success of one and failure of another breeds bad 
blood among pupils as well as between men in after life. 



l^JS LAND TEAOHINQ. 

To handle a district school well and through the use of plants 
and natural objects to give an interest in surroundings, to educate 
unresponsive children up to the enjoyment of the beauties of nature 
Is not any easy thing to do. Yet, if all things in life were easy there 
would be no use in living, and the teacher who can decorate the school 
grounds and protect tnem through the love of the child is doing a 
irreat deal towards the production of good citizens and men, who 
at some future time must bear the responsibilities of a greater 
America. 

Let us hope that the future rural schools of this great country 
of ours will be beautified through the use of the natural and native 
trees, shrubs and flowers that grow at the very door-yards for the 
asking. They need only to be taken from the woodland surroundings 
and used to beautify the buildings in which are being produced the" 
future American men and women. 



Part VI. 
HORTICULTURAL PRACTICE. 



CUTTINGS. 



Let us first consider the conditions necessary for the growth 
of cuttings. Having no roots, a cutting can take in but little mois- 
ture from the soil; nevertheless evaporation continues from its sur- 
face. In order, then, to start growth, the loss of water must be re- 
duced to a minimum until the roots have taken hold of the soil. This 
reduction of evaporation brings up a discussion of climate. Warm, 
moist atmospheres reduce the loss of water from cuttings and make 
rooting an easy affair. In tropical climates many plants can be 
raised from cuttings which we would be unable to propagate by that 
method in this latitude. The necessary conditons for success from 
cuttings may be summed up as follows: Have an abundance of 
water; the ground warmer than the surrounding atmosphere and a 
relatively cool temperature of the air. 

Deciduous hardwood cuttings should be allowed to mature on the 
plant; they should be taken during the dormant season and generally 
the best wood is that of last season's growth. With herbaceous 
plants immature or growing parts are often used. The wood used 
should be neither too old nor too young, too large nor too small. 
Large pieces have, usually, too much distance between the joints 
and those too small are apt to be immature. Cuts from the lower 
end of the branch usually root better than those from near the tip. 
Lateral branches are preferred to those near the top of the plant; 
often, however, the lower laterals are too large. A good length for a 
cutting is from six to nine inches; the greater the number of nodes 
on the cut the better the chances of success; two nodes with one 
Internode will, though, often root without trouble. 

In taking cuttings from herbaceous plants, that is, taking immature 
parts the leaves must be redced in size by cutting them in two or 



108 LAND TEACH IN a. 

removing most of them; it is not a good plan to remove all the 
leaves; simply reduce the number and size. 

Hardwood cuttings may be taken any time after the plant becomes 
dormant. It is probably best to make them before the severe cold 
weather comes on; they can then be bound in bundles and buried, 
butt uppermost; after that it does not matter how cold it gets; the 
cuttings callous over at the butt and are in good shape to be planted 
next spring. In cutting, however, the lower end should be square 
and the cut should be made just below a bud; the top may be cut on 
a slant and allowed to extend some distance above the node. If 
made as above recommended it is an easy matter to distinguish be- 
tween the top and bottom of the cutting at planting time. 

For cuttings easily rooted any soil, except a stiff clay, will serve 
the purpose, but for those that are hard to root, as the conifers and 
herbaceous plants, a good clean sand is desirable and in many in- 
stances a necessity. Where cuttings are long they had best be 
planted on a slant; short ones may be put in straight, but taking it 
all in all the slant method is probably the best. With some kinds 
It is essential to have bottom heat. This may be secured by the use 
of a hot-bed where green-houses are not to be had. Where cuttings 
are set on a large scale in the field they should be from four inches 
to a foot apart in the row and the rows far enough apart to allow 
cultivation with a cultivator. 

Plants commonly propagated by cuttings are as follows: Willows, 
flgs, grapes, LeConte pears, Carolina poplars, pomegranates, etc. The 
cuttings from the above are usually easily rooted and may be set in 
the open or put out where the tree is desired to grow. 

Herbaceous plants, as carnations, tomatoes, fuchsia, coleus, geran- 
iums, etc., are also propagated by cuttings, but are harder to root 
than the hardwood ones mentioned first and are usually put out in 
green-houses devoted entirely to the business of propagation. 

Besides cuttings of mature and growing parts above ground there 
are some plants propagated by root cuttings. Here are the approved 
methods for propagating citrus fruits. 

Orange — Named varieties are budded. 

Lemon — Named kinds usually budded, but may be grown from 
cuttings set in open field. The ponderosa lemon is usually grown 
from cuttings. 

Lime — ^Seeds, and some are budded. 

Grapefruit — Seeds; may be budded upon orange or grapefruit stock. 

Kumquat — Worked on orange stocks. 



21 











^ 







110 LAND TEACHINO. 

PRUNING. 

Pruning Is one of the six main orchard, practices; the others are 
tillage, fertilizing, spraying, harvesting and marketing. Without pay- 
ing close attention to all of these the orchard is apt to become an 
unprofitable Investment. Tillage provides the general care of the 
soil and the conservation of the moisture; fertilization pertains to 
the food of the plants; spraying takes care of the diseases affecting 
the plants and fruits; harvesting pertains to the picking and packing, 
while upon marketing depends the profit or loss for the year. Prun- 
ing is that practice which removes surplus wood opens up the 
tree to the iight, decreases the bearing area, thereby preventing a 
great deal of thinning in spring, and removes all dead or otherwise 
objectionable limbs. We might here stretch a point and call thin- 
ning a division of pruning, for after all, taking off surplus fruit is 
nothing more nor less than pruning. 

Why Prune — The best answer would probably be to give the reasons 
for and the effects of taking out wood, (a) Pruning is done to 
remove all crossing or otherwise interfering wood besides all dead 
and undesirable branches as those affected with blight of the apple 
or pear, black knot of the plum, or curl leaf of the peach, (b) By 
pruning some thinning is accomplished and the trees are prevented 
from bearing too heavy a load of fruit, (c) Too luxuriant a growth 
Is checked by cutting out the wood and heading back the tree; check- 
ing growth induces fruitfulness, therefore pruning induces fruitful- 
ness. (d) By opening up the head of the tree more sunlight is 
made available for coloring the fruit and holding diseases and pests 
In check; thinning out the top also gives a freer circulation of air, 
which is desirable in an orchard, (e) In the South trees are pruned 
and headed low to keep them within easy access of the pickers 
and to protect them from the heat of the sun. (f) Fruits on a pruned 
tree are usually larger than those on an unpruned one. 

When Prune— It depends largely upon the plants to be worked with 
and the object of the pruning. Generally the best season Is after 
the leaves have fallen and before the seeds begin to swell In the 
spring; just before or just after Christmas is probably the best time, 
though peaches and apples may be pruned later in the year than 
grapes. It is not advisable to prune grapes much after the first 
of February; the scuppernong and other rotundifoUas should be 
pruned before Christmas, as they bleed profusely and if pruned later 
are apt to suffer materially. Summer pruning is advocated by some; 



LAND TEACHING. 



Ill 



trees making an excessive growth may be pruned in the summer as 

the plant suffers considerably through the loss of its leaves and its 
growth will be greatly checked. Also, if one is cutting out blight 
it had best be done in the summer while it is easily perce'ptibl.e. 





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How Prune — Remove all branches that cross or will at some future 
time interfere with one another; take out aU surplus wood, water 
sprouts or suckers; dead, injured or badly diseased limbs, and in 
peaches cut back from a half to a third of the past season's growth; 
it is not advisable to cut back apples so severely. With grapes, cut 
back the past season's growth, leaving spurs with some three or four 
buds on them; the number of spurs left is determined by the type of 
training and the number of bearing canes desired the following sea- 
son. With the small fruits thin out all the canes that are old or dead, 
leaving only those that will produce fruit the following summer. 

In pruning old trees, or trees that have been left alone for several 
years, be careful not to take too much wood off the first time, as too 
heavy a cutting causes a severe shock which injures the tree. The 
size of the tree and the time it has been allowed to grow "ad libitum" 
will determine the time necessary to get it into shape. If the tree 
Is large and has not been pruned in several years from a third to a 




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LAND TEACHING. 113 

half of the desired wood should be removed the first season till the 
desired amount nas been taken out; it may take some three or four 
years to get the tree into good shape. It is well to remember that 
Rome was not built in a day, nor can an old tree be put back into 
shape In one season. Time and stick-to-it-iveness will work won- 
ders In an old orchard and continual care will keep a young one in 
good condition. 

GRAFTING AND BUDDING. 

There Is always great interest taken in the process of budding 
and grafting, especially by those who are unfamiliar with plant 
■growth. They seem to think it one of the most wonderful things 
In the world that two pieces of wood will unite and form a p'ant. 
When the nature of plants is understood, there is really nothing 
more simple than grafting. It Is possible for any one to perform 
the work successfully. 

Grafting is simply the placing of a scion on, or into a stock so that 
a union is formed and thus the desired plant is propagated. Dr. L. 
H. Bailey divides the uses of grafting into three parts: 

1 — To perpetuate a variety. 

2 To increase the ease and speed of multiplication. 

3. — To produce some radical change in the scion or stock. 

A definition or two may not be amiss; the scion is the vebetatlve 
part; It is to bring forth the variety that we wish to perpetuate. 
The stock is the portion which furnishes the root and nourishment 
for the plant. 

To be a good grafter and make a success of the business, it is ab- 
solutely necessary to know something of the botany of the subject. 
T;he great point in grafting is to have the cambium of the stock in 
direct touch with the cambium of the scion. Unless this is the case, 
no union will take place and the time spent making the graft is 
tnrown away. The cambium i s the growing part of the tree ; 
on its inner side it forms wood and on the outer it makes 
bark. The new cell formation takes place between the wood 
and bark. We also know that when a tree is injured it throws 
out a new tissue called a callus. This callus is the healing tissue 
of the tree as the scab is the healing tissue in man. Therefore, if 
you bring two wounded surfaces together they grow fast and, if the 
cambiums are touching, a connection is formed so that food can be 
taken up to the leaves and returned again to the roots. 

Though grafting is a simple thing, there are some limits to it. 



il4 LAND TEACH IN a. 

All trees and plants will not unite; there must be some similarity 
between them before they will grow together. 

(1) Plants of different varieties and of the same species always 
unite. This means that an apple scion can be grafted onto an apple 
stock and will take or form a union. 

(2) Plants of different species but of the same genera almost al- 
ways unite. That is, a peach can be grafted onto a plum and will 
usually take. 

(3) Plants of different genera but of the same plant family, 
sometimes unite. This latter type of union is very seldom seen. 

Let us now consider the three uses of grafting. First, to perpetuate 
a variety: It is well known that seed will not come true, so when we 
find a plant we wish very much to continue we have to do so by 
Duds, as we can pretty well depend upon the bud producing the kind 
of plant that it was taken from. Second, to increase ease and speed 
of multiplicaton: We can graft a new variety into the top of an old 
tree and find out what kind of fruit It is going to produce long before 
It would bear fruit on its own stock. Third, to produce some 
radical change in the scion or stock: dwarf trees are obtained by 
grafting a rapidly growing scion into a slow growing stock, thus the 
scion is prevented from attaining its normal height. Stocks resistant 
to a given disease are used in sections where such troubles are prev- 
alent. In many other ways adaptabilities and modifications may be 
secured by a judicious use of scion and stock. 

There are three kinds of grafting: (1) Budding; (2) Scion grafting, 
and (3) Inarching or approach grafting. The latter Is simply bringing 
two trees or twigs together, wounding them and tying the wounds one 
to the other. After a union has taken place, the top is cut away from 
the one desired for the stock and the stock cut away from the one 
wished for the scion and the graft is complete. This is th kind of graft- 
ing that is seen in the woods and is sometimes called a natural graft. 

Budding is the inserting of a single bud into a stock, and after the 
bud has grown the original top is cut away and the bud allowed to 
form the top of the stock. Reference to the illustration will show 
how the bud is cut and how the work is done. There are two kinds, 
annular or ring-budding and T-budding. In the first, a ring of bark is 
cut out with the bud and the whole ring put onto the stock. In the 
T-budding a cut like a T is made on the stock and a bud with a bit of 
bark adhering to il is inserted and then tied in. Budding is done 
either in the fall or spring. The latter Is called June budding with 
us. 



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QRiAFTrNiG, BUDDING AND CUTTINGS. 



116 LAND TEACHING. 

Scion grafting is divided into four parts: (1) Root grafting, when 
the scion is put into the root; (2) Crown grafting, when the scion is 
Inserted at the crown of the plant; (3) Stem grafting, when the 
scion is inserted into the stem of the plant; that is, between the crown 
and the place where the limbs come out .and (4) Top grafting, when 
me scion is put into the limbs of the tree. The methods of uniting 
the stock and scion are numerous, but those mainly used are the Whip 
graft, the Splice and the Cleft, all three of which are figured in the 
Illustration. The first two mentioned are used extensively in root 
grafting, while the latter is mostly used for top working or top 
grafting. 

Scions should be cut while trees are dormant and before severe 
freezing; they should be kept in moist sand in a cool place, and 
If root grafts are made, they should also be kept in sand until they 
have calloused over, then planted out in the open. Bud sticks are 
usually taken just about the time the budding is done and budding can 
be done at any time the bark will slip easily. Grafting is usually 
done during the dormant season, the scions being taken from last 
year's growth. At the time of grafting they are cut in lengths of 
four or more inches, there being from four to six buds on a scion. A 
scion with a terminal bud on it usually has the terminal cut off in 
order to induce a lateral growth. Bud sticks are also takei from the 
young growth; that is, the youngest growth on the tree at the time of 
cutting the sticks. 

There is another use of grafting that often comes in handy. It is 
Bridge grafting. Often a tree is injured or girdled by mice or rab- 
bits and it is possible to save it by bridging over the injured portions 
with scions sharpened at both ends and slipped under the bark of the 
stock. These scions make it possible for the sap to flow both ways 
in the tree and in a few years will have completely cured it of the in- 
jury. When grafts are made out of doors they should be covered with 
grafting wax to protect them until the union is made. All cions 
should be tied securely into the stock before the wax is put on. 

There is no reason why one peach tree should not have several 
kinds of peaches on it, or why there should not be a rose bush in the 
yard that bears pink, red, white and yellow roses. Try grafting a little 
while and after some practice you will be able to get a good union 
most of the time. 



Part VII. 
CROP PEST DIRECTORY. 



Crop pests are chiefly of two kinds: 

1. Insect Pests. — Preparations for their destruction are known as 
"Insecticides." 

2. Fungus Diseases. — Preparations for their destruction are known 
as "Fungicides." 

INSECTS. 

1. Biting Insects, (or Chewing Insects) which bodily devour vege- 
table tissue, subsisting largely on the foliage of plants. As they 
take the food material into their stomachs they may be readily 
destroyed by violent poisons, as the arsenites. To this class belong 
the Colorado potato beetle, most caterpillars, and in general, all 
leaf eating insects. 

For them Paris green is the principal remedy, applied in liquid 
/orm by means of a spray pump, through the nose of a watering pot, 
or sprinkled with a broom, in the proportion of one ounce to ten 
gallons of water, or five ounces to the barrel of fifty gallons. 
When used on orchard trees, and especially on peaches, whose foli- 
age is very sensitive, it should be reduced to four ounces and three 
ounces respectively. 

in the dry form it may be mixed with thirty times its bulk of flour 
or lime, and, in default of a dust sprayer or blow-gun, dust on the 
plants in early morning, while the dew is on, through a meal sifter or 
a perforated can of any sort. 

2. Sucking Insects. They have a sucking apparatus which they 
Insert into the soft vegetable tissue and extract the sap. To this 
Class belong all scale insects, plant lice and the "true" bugs, such as 
the pumpkin or squash bug, the harlequin cabbage bug, etc. 

These insects cannot be reached through their stomachs. They 
must be destroyed through external applications. Kerosene, (pref- 
erably as an emulsion,) is found to stop their breathing pores and in- 



118 LAND TEACHING. 

stantly smother them, and in the past has been the chief weapon 
against these insects. Whale oil soap, though not so effective, is pref- 
erable whenever it can be substituted. 

2. FUNGUS DISEASES. 

FYingoid and bacterial affections are more numerous and wide- 
spread than insect pests, and usually more insidious. Effective rem- 
edies, while many, may, for all practical purposes be reduced to one: 
Bordeaux Mixture. This, if a fungus is capable of control, will 
generally prove more effective than any other fungicide. It may be 
superceded, when it is desirable not to stain the fruit, by Ammoniacal 
Carbonate of Copper. (Formula 10.) 

Which Use? 

The two necessary insecticides are Paris Greeen for all Chewing 
Insects, and Kerosene or its substitutes for Sucking Insects, — with 
the Lime Sulphur Wash for Scales. Additional or auxiliary prepa- 
rations will be noteu under the head of "Insecticides" in the next 
division. 

The one universal Fungicide is Bordeaux Mixture, reinforced by 
Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate. Additional or auxiliary preparations 
are enumerated under head of "Fungicides." 

The Lime Sulphur Wash is of almost equal value as Insecticide 
and Fungicide. 

There are, of course, other minor materials and preparations, 
many of them; but, fortified by Bordeaux Mixture, and Paris green 
in the same preparation, for all Fungi and Chewing Insects, and 
with Kerosene or its substitutes, for sucking insects, and with Lime 
Sulphur Wash for Scales, the grower may confidently bid defiance to 
nearly every plant malady. 

The fight is thus greatly simplified. The horticulturist need not 
attempt to identify the particular agency from which he is suffering 
injury. He may take it for granted that he is going to be attacked 
by both classes of insects,— Chewers and Suckers,— and that one or 
more, probably a varied assortment, or fungous affections will every 
season pay him their respects. 

Therefore, forewarned is forearmed. He prepares his ammunition 
for the battle in ihe shape of a plentiful supply of Bordeaux with 
which he mixes five ounces of Paris green to every barrel of fifty 
gallons and sprays regularly, knowing that thereby he protects him- 



LAND TEACHING. 1 19 

self from ail kinds of Fungi and Chewing Insects that may chance to 
visit him. 

The Sucking Insects are more readily discoverable. On the appear- 
ance of aphids, (or plant lice), squash bugs, or any other form, he 
has his Kerosene Emulsion, (or Whale Oil Soap), with which to 
meet them. In the case of those pests which cannot be fought with 
kerosene or whale oil, on account of damage to the edibility or market 
value of the product, he must rely on Tobacco Infusion, Pyrethrum 
Decoction or Tobacco Pyrethrum Tea. 

The chief remedy for Scale is Lime Sulphur Wash. A preparation 
01 soluble oil known as "Scalacide" is now recognized as a very effec- 
tive spray for San Jose Scale. It is thoroughly effective and particu- 
larly convenient. 

FORMULAS. 

1. Insecticides. 

1. Paris Green, — Applied Dry: 
Paris Green, 8 ounces 
Flour, (or Lime), 15 pounds. 

Sprayed: 

Paris Green, 5 ounces 
Lime, 6 pounds 
Water, 50 gallons. 
With Bordeaux: 
Paris Green, 5 ounces 
Bordeaux Mixture, 50 gallons. 
For the Colorado Potato Beetle, Foliage Destroying Caterpillars, 
and all Chewing Insects. May be applied every ten days, or oftenei 
if necessary. For orcnard spraying in general, use four ounces to 
fifty gallons, instead of five ounces, and with peaches three ounces. 
Paris Green costs about twenty cents a pound retail. It is a violent 
poison; handle with care. Paragrene and Disparene are two other 
arsenites that are reliable and may be substituted in same proportion. 
London purple is inferior to either, dangerous to foliage and is not 
recommended. 

2. Arsenical Bran Mash. 

White Arsenic, one ounce, or Paris green, one pound; syrup, two 
quarts; bran fifty to seven-five pounds. Thin the syrup with water, 
then mix well with the other materials and add enough more water 



120 LAND TEACBINQ. 

to make a wet but not sloppy mash; two or four pounds of dissolved 
sugar may be usea instead of the syrup. 

For grasshoppers, cut-worms and crickets. Scatter mash where 
grasshoppers are abundant, and for cut worms put a teaspoonful near 
the base of each plant. If on the first night after plowing the field 
the bait is scattered and left for two or three days, the cut-worms, 
leaving nothing else to feed on, will come to the surface, devour it, 
and be practically exterminated before the crop is planted. Scattered 
upon the cabbages it is good to destroy the cabbage worm. Wire 
worms may be poisoned to some extent by putting Paris green or 
White Arsenic on slices of Irish potato, or some similar vegetable, 
and using for a bait. 
3. Kerosene Emulsion: 

Kerosene, 1 quart 
Whale Oil Soap, or other good hard soap, as Babbitt's, Ivory, or 
Glory, ^2, pound. 
Rainwater, or water known to be soft, 1 gallon. 

Shave soap, dissolve it in the water, heat to almost boiling and then 
add the kerosene and churn through a cheap force pump until emul- 
sified. Dilute with two and a half gallons of water, making one part 
kerosene to fourteeen parts of water. This produces about a seven 
per cent, mixture. Diluting with two gallons water about eight per 
cent, is obtained; nine per cent, with one and a half gallons, about 
eleven per cent, with one gallon, and some fifteen per cent, with two 
quarts. This is sufficiently strong for most purposes. Yet it is well 
to begin with the standard seven per cent, till Its effects on foliage 
has been personally observed. 

Mechanical Mixture. — Temporarily emulfisied by the Kero-Water 
sprayer. A lever regulates the per cent, of kerosene admitted to the 
nozzle. As the delivery, however, is not always exact, the Emulsion 
Is decidedly preferable. Kero-Water Sprayers, indeed, if used at all, 
should be carefully watched. 

Kerosene may be used for all Sucking Insects, Plant Lice, the softer 
Scales, Squash Bugs, etc., where the edibility of the product is not 
affected by the kerosene. 
4. Whale Oil Soap: 

Whale Oil Soap, 1 pound 
Water, 6 gallons 
Dissolve and spray for aphids on foliage in summer, or concentrate 
to one pound to three gallons water for wash for the softer scales in 
winter. 



LAND TEACHING. 12| 

5. Tobacco Infusion: 

Tobacco Stems, 1 pound 

Boiling water, 4 gallons 
Cool and strain. For Plant Lice, Flea Beetles, etc. 
6.- Pyrethrum Decoction: 

Fyrethrum powder, 1 ounce 

Water, (warm), 2 gallons 
Dry application: 

Mix one part, (by weight), of Pyretlirum with four parts of flour. 
Keep closed twenty-four hours before dusting, that the flour may be 
permeated by the essential oil of the Pyrethrum. 

7. Tobacco Pyrethrum Tea: 
Tobacco Stems, % pound, 
Pyrethrum powder, % ounces 
Boiling water, 1 gallon 

For obdurate cases of Plant Lice on young apple trees. Dip the af- 
fected branches in the tea. 

2. Fungicides. 

8. Bordeaux IVIixture. 

Copper Sulphate,, (bluestone), 4 pounds. 

Quick Lime, 6 pounds 

Water, 50 gallons 
Dissolve the bluestone in two gallons hot water; strain through the 
copper sieve of the sprayer or through a gunny sack into a fifty gal- 
lon barrel. Slake the lime slowly in a wooden bucket and when 
ebullition is over dilute to a thick whitewash. Strain slowly into the 
bluestone in the barrel, stirring thoroughly. Fill the barrel with 
water. Always stir well before filling the sprayer. The cost of this 
mixture is less than one cent per gallon. For the first spraying 
before the buds swell, the lime may be omitted, and a simple blue- 
stone solution prepared. 

In case the mixture is not to be immediately used, it is well to make 
a stock solution, in separate barrels, of both bluestone and lime, one 
pound of each to the gallon of water. A gallon of either mixture 
will thus represent one pound of bluestone and one pound of lime, 
respectively, and the two may be readily combined in any desired 
proportion. 

For application to peach foliage, (for brown rot, leaf curls, etc.,) 
a 3- 9-50 mixture, (three pounds bluestone, nine pounds lime, and fifty 
gallons water), must be used instead of the normal 4-6-50 formula. 



122 LAND T/JACIIIXG. 

reach foliage is extremely sensitive. When Paris green is combined 
with the Bordeaux it should not be stirred in until just before spray- 
ing. 

9. Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate: 
Copper Carbonate, 6 ounces 

Aqua Ammonia, (strong, 26 degrees), 2 quarts, 
Water, 50 gaiions 
Make a paste of the copper carbonate with water, dilute the am- 
monia with one and a half gallons water and stir in the paste until 
thoroughly dissolved, making two gallons stock solution. Keep the 
stock solution in a glass vessel stopped with glass or rubber, and on 
using dilute each quart with six gallons water. 

Use whenever the Bordeaux stain would prove objectionable. 

10. Formaldehyde (Formalin): 
One pint to thirty gallons water. 

l<'or potato scab, and for purposes of general disinfection. 
'ihe tubers should be suspended in a gunny sack and immersed 
In a barrel of the liquid for two hours before cutting and planting. 
When used for Smut in grain dilute to one pint to fifty galons water. 

11. Corrosive Sublimate, (Mercuric Bichloride): 
Corrosive Sublimate, 2 ounces 

Water, 30 gallons 
For Potato Scab. Soak as directed with Formalin, but for three 
Instead of two hours. This is a violent poison, internally, and great 
care should be exercised in its use. 

12. Lime Sulphur Wash: 
Lime, (unslaked), 21 pounds 

Sulphur, (flowers of), 18 pounds 
Water, 50 gallons 

Make a paste of the sulphur and stir same into fifteen gallons of 
boiling water. Add the lime and stir thoroughly while slaking. Bo'.l 
violently for thirty-five or forty minutes, or until the mixture is a 
yellowish-green color. Dilute, before the boiling closes, to fifty gallons 

For winter application for San Jose scale and also an effective fun- 
gicide for Plum Pocket, Leaf Curl, Black Knot, etc. The original 
Llme-Sulphur-Salt compound has now been almost entirely superceded 
by the foregoing, which proves equally effective and more economical. 

13. Hellebore: 

White Hellebore, 2 ounces. 
Water, 10 gallons. 



LAXD TEACHIXG. 123 

This may be dusted in powdered form. For Chewing Insects on 
cauliflower, or where ever it is not desired to risk the arsenites. Not 
so effective as the latter, but harmless. 

14. Carbon Bi-Sulphide: 

One teaspoonful to each cubic foot of bin space. For all weevils 
and insects attacking stored grains and seeds. Expose in open saucers 
or pour down gas pipes into piled grain. 

This is a volatile liquid, whose fumes are heavier than air. When 
mixed with air the fumes are very explosive, and no fire of any kind 
should be brought near them. For fumigating a building containing 
growing plants, not more than one pint to one thousand cubic feet 
of space should be used. To destroy weevils in grain in tight bins, 
used about one pound to a ton of grain, or the liquid can be poured 
directly on the grain. If bins are somewhat open cover with a 
blanket. Fumigate from twenty-four to thirty hours, after which the 
bins should be thoroughly aired. No live stock should be left in a 
building which is being fumigated. 

Ants nests may be destroyed by pouring the liquid into holes made 
oy thrusting a sharpened stick into the top of the nests to the depth 
of ten or twelve inches. Close the holes and cover for an hour v.ith 
a wet blanket. Sometimes the holes are made to a greater depth, and 
the operator, standing at some distance, lights gas with a liame at 
end of a pole. The explosion drives the gas into the furthermost paits 
of the nest. 



APPENDIX. 



TABLE I. 

Vitality and Germlnntlon of Seed. 

The first column gives the average time required for germin- 
ation by tlie Stockbridge method of testing.* The second tlie 
average time for germination in the field. The third gives the 
vitality of seed or age after which it is not good. 



Barley 

Beans 

Beets 

Bluegrass 

Buckwheat 

Cabbage 

Carrot 

Celery 

Clover 

Corn (Field) 

Corn (Sweet) 

Cotton 

Cucumbers 

Egg Plant 

Flax 

Kohl Rabl 

Lettuce 

Melon (Mus*..; 

Melon (Water) 

Millet 

Mustard 

Oats 

Okra 

Onions 

Orchard Grass 

Parsley 

x-arsnip 

Pea 

Peanut 

Peppers 

Pumpkin 

Radish 

Rye 

Spinach 

Squash 

Timothy 

Tobacco 

Tomato 

Turnip 

\, neat 




*I'ut piece of board in shallow l)asin of water. 
ck>fh so that edges hang in water. Lay 100 counted seeds 
rover with second cloth, fount sprouted seeds. 



LAXD TEACHING. 125 



TABLE II. 



QUANTITY OF SEED REQUIRED. 

Seeds Necessary to Produce a Given Number of Plants op Sow a 

Given Amount of Ground. 

Quantity per Acre. 

Artichoke 1 oz to 500 plants ^4 lb. 

Asparagus 1 oz. to 200 plants 5 lbs. 

Beans, dwarf 1 quart to 150 ft. of drill IVi bushels. 

Beans, pole 1 quart to 200 hills y^ bushel 

Beet, garden 1 oz. to 200 feet of drill 10 lbs. 

Beet, mangel 1 oz. to 150 feet of drill G bushels. 

Cabbage 1 oz. to 3,000 plants - 4 oz. 

Carrots 1 oz. to 250 feet of drill 2Mj lbs. 

Cauliflower 1 oz. to 3,000 plants 5 oz. 

Celery 1 oz. to 10,000 plants 4 oz. 

Collards 1 oz to 2,500 plants 6 oz. 

Corn, sweet 1 quart to 500 hills 8 quarts. 

Cress 1 oz. to 150 feet of drill 8 lbs. 

Cucumbers 1 oz. to 80 hills 1 1^ lbs. 

Egg Plants 1 oz. to 1,500 plants 4 oz. 

Endive 1 oz. to 300 feet of drill 3 lbs. 

Gourd I oz. to 25 hills 2^2 bushels. 

Garlic, bulbs 1 lb. to 19 feet of drill 2 bu 

Kale 7 oz. to 3,000 plants 6 oz. 

Kohl-Rabl 1 oz. to 200 feet of drill ly^ lbs. 

Leek 1 oz. to 250 feet of drill 4 lbs. 

Lettuce 1 oz. to 250 feet of drill 3 lbs. 

Melon, musk 1 oz. to 100 hills 1% lbs. 

Melons, water 1 oz. to 25 hills 1* lbs. 

Nasturtium 1 oz. to 50 feet of drill 10 lbs. 

Okra 1 oz. to 50 feet of drill 10 lbs. 

Onion Seed 1 oz. to 200 feet of drill 4 lbs. 

Onion Seed for sets 60 lbs. 

Onion Seed 1 quart to 20 feet of drill 8 bushels. 

Onion Sets 1 oz. to 250 feet of drill 5 bushels. 

Parsnips for transplanting 2^;, lbs. 

Parsley 1 oz. to 250 feet of drill , 8 lbs. 

Peas, garden 1 quart to 160 feet of drill 1* bushel. 



126 L.IXD TEAVIIIXO. 

Peas, field or cow peas Broadcasted 2 bushels. 

Pepper 1 t-z- to l.^uO Piauto 4 oz. 

Potatoes, sweet and Insu 9 bushels. 

Radish 1 oz. to 150 feet of drill 8 lbs. 

Spinach 1 oz. to 150 feet of drill 10 lbs 

Summer Savory 1 oz. to 500 feet of drill 2 lbs 

Squash, summer 1 oz. to 40 hills 2 lbs 

Tomato 1 oz. to 250 feet of drill 1* lbs. 

Turnip 1 oz to 2,000 plants 4 oz. 

TABLE III. 
USUAL DISTANCES FOR PLANTING VEGETABLES. 

Asparagus Hows 3 to 4 ft. apart, 1 to 2 ft. apart in row. 

Beans, bush ... 2 to 3 ft. apart, 1 ft. apart in rows. 

pole, 3 to 4 ft. each way. 

Beet, early in drills 12 to 18 in. apart 

Cabbage, early ..In drills 2 to 3 ft. apart. 

'• late IG X 28 in. to 18 X 30 in. 

late 2 X 3 ft. to 21/2 x 31/2 ft. 

Carrot In drills 1 to 2 ft. apart 

Cauliflower 2 x 2 ft .to 2 x 3 ft. 

Celery Rows 3 to 4 ft. apart, G to 9 in. in row 

Corn, sweet 3x3 ft. 

Cucumber i to 5 ft. each way. 

Egg-Plant 1 X 11/2 or 2 ft. 

Lettuce Drills 14 to 18 inches. 

Melon, musk 4 to G ft. each way. 

water . . 10 to 12 feet each way. 

Union In drills 18 in. 

Parsnip in drills, early kinds, usually in double rows, G to 9 In. 

Peas In drills, 1 ft. apart, late, in single rows, 1 to 3 ft. apart. 

Pepper 15 to 18 in x 2 to 21/2 ft. 

Potato 10 to 18 in. X 2Vi to 3% ft. 

Pumpkin 8 to 10 feet each way. 

Radish in drills, 10 to 18 in. apart. 

Rhubarb 2 to 4 ft. x 4 ft. 

Salsify .In drills, li^ to 2 ft. apart. 

Spinach n drills, 12 to 18 in. apart. 

Squash 3 to G ft. x 4 ft. 

Sweet Potato . . 2 ft. x 3 ft. to 4 ft. 



LASL) TEAL' HIS O. 127 

Tomato 4 ft. x 4 to 5 ft. 

Turnip In drills, 1 Vz to 21/^ ft. apart. 

TABLE IV. 
MUMBER OF PLANTS OR TREES TO THE ACRE AT GIVEN 

DISTANCES. 
Distance Apart Number of Plants. 
1/2 foot 74,240 

1 foot 43,500 

11/. feet 19.360 

2 feet 10,890 

Sy^ feet 6,969 

3 feet by 1 foot 14,520 

3 feet by two feet '^.^eo 

3 feet by 3 feet 4,840 

4 feet by 1 foot 10.888 

4 feet by 2 feet S,444 

4 feet by 3 feet 3.629 

4 feet by 4 feet 2,722 

5 feet by 5 feet 1,742 

6 feet 1,210 

7 feet 889 

8 feet 680 

9 feet 435 

10 feet 435 

11 feet 360 

12 feet 302 

15 feet 193 

18 feet 134 

20 feet . , 108 

25 feet 69 

30 feet 49 

TABLE V. 
FRUIT TREES. 
..Distances Apart. Time Required to Bear Fruit, and Longevity... 
Apples 30 to 40 ft. each way 3 years. Good crop 

1 year. Good crop 

Apples, dwarf. 10 ft. each way ... in about 10 years 25-40 yrs. 

Blackberry ... 4 x 7 to 6 x 8 ft in 2 to 3 years 8-12 yrc. 

Currant 4 x 5 ft 1 year. Good crop in 

2 to 3 years 20 yrs. 



128 LAM) n.ACJllSG. 

Gooseberry . . 4 x 5 ft 1 year. Good crop in 

2 to 3 years 20 yrs. 

Orange, Lemon 20 x 30 ft. each way 2 to 3 years. Good 

crop 2 to 3 yrs later. . 50 or more 
Peach lu to 20 ft. each way . 2 years. Good crop in 

4 years 8-12 yrs. 

Fears 20 to 30 ft. each way 3 or 4 years. Fair crop 

in 6-12 years 50-75 yrs. 

Persimmon , . .20 to 25 ft. each way 1 to 3 yrs 25 to 40 yrs. 

Plum 16 to20 ft. each way . 3 yrs. Good crop in 5 

to G years 20-25 yrs. 

Raspberry ... 3 x 6 ft 1 year. Good crop in 

2 to 3 years 8-12 yrs. 

■I'vhorry ,.1 x 3 or 4 ft 1 yr. Heaviest crop 

usually in 2 yrs 3 yr 



LAND TEACHING. 



129 



TABLE VI. 
Average Weight of Fertilizing Constituents In 1,000 Pound* of 
^ Garden Crops. 



ONE THOUSAND POUNDS CONTAINS: 



MARKETABLE 
CROP. 



Asparagus , 

Beels 

Caobages 

Caulitlower 

Cucumbers 

Lie..>,uce 

Onions 

Potatoes, Irisa . . 

lomatoes 

Turnips 

Compare with — 
wheat (grain) 
Corn (grain) . 



Nitrogen, 
lbs. 



2.9 
2.4 
3.8 
1.3 
1.6 
2.3 
1.4 
2.1 
l.G 
1.8 



23. G 

18.2 



Equiv. to 
Ammonia 
lbs. 



3.52 
2.91 
4. 61 
1.58 



Available, 
I'bos. Acid 
lbs. 



Potash, 
lbs. 



28.7 
22.1 



0.8 
0.9 
1.1 
1.6 
1.2 
0.7 
0.4 
0.7 
0.5 
1.0 



8.90 
7.00 



2.9 
4.4 
4.3 
3.6 
2.4 
3.7 
1.0 
2.9 
2.7 
3.9 



6.10 
4.00 



TABLE VM. 



Average Percentages of Constituents for Fertilizers for Garden 

Crops. 



CROP. 



Beans, Snap 

Beets 

Cabbages 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Cucumber 

Egg Plant 

Lettuce 

iVitions, Musk 

Melons, Water 

Onions 

Peas 

Potatoes, Irish 

Potatoes, Sweet 

Radishes I 

Spinach | 

Tomatoes | 

Turnips | 

Beans, ^ima l 





CONTAINING: 




Nitrog-en;Ammonlj 


J Availabl* 


5 Potash 




1 


Pho.. Acid 


1 


2.47 


3 


7 


7 


4.94 





5 


8 


4.94 


6 


5 


7 


4.94 


6 


5 


7 


5.77 


7 


5 


8 


4.94 


6 


5 


7 


4.12 


5 


6 


7 


4.94 


6 


5 


8 


4.94 


6 


5 


7 


4.94 


6 


5 


7 


4.12 


5 


5 


8 


2.47 


3 


7 


7 


4.94 


6 


7 


8 


2.47 


3 


7 


8 


4.12 


5 


7 


8 


4.12 


5 


8 


6 


4.12 


5 


6 


7 


4.12 


5 


7 


8 


2.47 


3 


7 


7 



130 



LAND TE AC Ills a. 



TABLE VIII. 
AvvrnK^ PorcentnKe Composition of Fcrtilixinv IngrredlentH. 



INGREDIENTS 



FUliNISIilNG NITROGEN PUIXCIPAI.LY : 

Sulphate of Ammonia. 9o per cent. 

Nitrate of Soda, 97 per cent 

Dried Blood 

Fish Scrap 

Tanivage 

Cotton Seed Meal 



CONTAINING: 



Nitro- 
gen. 



or Am- 
monia 



Phos- 
phoric 
Acid. 



FURNISHING POTASH PRINCIPALLY: 

Kainit 

Sylvinit 

Sulphate of Potash, High Grade 

(9G per cent.) 

Sulphate of Potash, Magnesia 

( Double Manure Salt) 

Muriate of Potash 

Wood Ashes (Hard Wood, Unleached) 

Cotton Seed Hull Ashes | 

Tobacco Stems 



20. 
IG. 
13. 

8.2 
7.4 

7. 



FLTRNISHING PHOSPHORIC ACIU 
PRINCIPALLY : 

Acid Phosphate 

Disolveu Bone 

Bone Meal 

Bone Black 

Bona Ash 

Dissolved Bone Black 



1.5 



24. 
19. 
16. 
10. 

9. 

8.50 



1.80 



2. 
4. 



5. 
8.t 
11. t 
2.5* 



.75 



10-14* 
14.* 
23. t 
28. 
35. 
16.* 



Pot- 
ash 



12.5 



52. 



• .\vallable Phosphoric Acid. 

I Contains 4 per cent. Available Phosphoric Acid. 

% Contains about 10 per cent. Available Phosphoric Acid. 



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